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SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING 
OF  ANIMALS 

■       KELLNER 


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THE    SCIENTIFIC 
FEEDING    OF    ANIMALS 


THE 

SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING 
OF  ANIMALS 

BY 

PROFESSOR   O.  KELLNER 

AUTHORISED    TRANSLATION    BY 

WILLIAM  GOODWIN,  B.Sc,  Ph.D. 

Lecturer  on  Agricultural  Chemistry,  and  Head  of  the  Chemical 

Department,  South-Eastern  Agricultural  College 

(University  of  London) 

Wye,  Kent. 


NEW  YORK. 
THE   MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

*9*3 


First  Impression       .     .     i9°9 

Second  Impression    .     .     1913 

All  Rights  Reserved 


PRINTED   BY  WILLIAM    BRENDON    AND   SON,    LTD. 
PLYMOUTH,    ENGLAND. 


PREFACE    TO    THE    ENGLISH 
EDITION 

THE  scientific  foundations  upon  which  the 
principles  of  animal  nutrition  rest  are,  like 
all  other  experimentally  derived  data,  of  general 
applicability  and  not  restricted  to  one  country  alone. 
It  is  true  that  climate  influences  the  weights  of 
crops  and  the  nutrients  contained  in  them,  but 
the  laws  governing  digestion,  metabolism,  effect  of 
foods  in  the  production  of  flesh,  fat,  milk,  wool,  or 
utilisable  energy  are  the  same  whether  the  animals 
are  kept  in  the  north  or  south,  east  or  west.  Any 
facts  therefore  which  are  brought  to  light  in  Germany 
or  France  are  practically  applicable  to  Great  Britain, 
the  United  States,  Canada,  Australia,  etc.,  for  in 
temperate  climates  the  differences  of  heat  or  cold 
only  influence  to  a  very  small  degree  the  needs  of  an 
animal  for  a  given  purpose.  For  this  reason  any- 
body who  is  well  acquainted  with  the  general  laws 
which  underlie  the  feeding  of  animals  will  always 
have  an  advantage  over  one  who  relies  upon  rule- 
of-thumb,  and  will  be  able  to  raise  animals  more 
cheaply  than  a  competitor  who  follows  the  practices 
of  his  grandfather. 


vi  PREFACE 

As  there  is  not  at  the  present  time  an  English 
book  which  gives  concisely  and  clearfy  the  informa- 
tion which  a  farmer  or  agricultural  student  ought  to 
possess,  I  have  gladly  agreed  to  the  following  trans- 
lation being  made  by  Dr.  Goodwin.  In  Part  I  will 
be  found  the  main  principles  upon  which  the  theory 
of  feeding  is  based,  then  follows  in  Part  II  a  short 
descriptive  account  of  the  different  feeding-stuffs,  in 
which  more  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  suita- 
bility and  uses  of  the  various  classes  than  to  the 
percentage  amounts  of  nutrients  which  they  con- 
tain. This  second  part  also  includes  the  methods 
used  in  the  conservation  and  preparation  of  feeding- 
stuffs,  and  is  followed  in  Part  III  by  the  conditions 
which  should  be  observed  in  the  feeding  of  the 
different  kinds  of  domestic  animals.  The  tables 
needed  for  the  calculation  of  rations,  with  a  few 
remarks  upon  the  method  of  using  them,  are  placed 
in  the  Appendix. 

I  sincerely  trust  that  this  edition  will  gain  as 
favourable  a  verdict  as  the  original  has  done  both 
from  practical  men  and  from  students  of  agricul- 
ture and  veterinary  science. 

Dr.  O.  Kellner. 

Agricultural  Experimental  Station, 

mockern,  near  leipzig, 

December •,  1908. 


TRANSLATOR'S    PREFACE 

I  HAVE  made  no  attempt  to  rearrange  Professor 
Kellner's  valuable  little  work  so  that  it  should 
be  more  in  accordance  with  English  practice,  for 
I  believe  that  in  its  original  form  the  main  points 
are  quite  clear  and  that  where  there  are  differences 
between  German  practice  and  our  own  they  will 
perhaps  serve  to  suggest  methods  worth  a  trial  here. 
It  is  hoped  that  in  this  way  the  book  will  have 
something  of  the  value  of  a  visit  to  a  foreign 
country,  which  is  so  beneficial  in  arousing  a  spirit 
of  critical  observation  with  regard  to  the  practices 
in  vogue  there.  As  the  author  says  in  the  Preface 
which  he  has  kindly  written  for  this  edition,  the 
main  principles  of  feeding  apply  equally  well  in  all 
countries  possessing  a  moderate  climate. 

That  Professor  Kellner  has  succeeded  in  giving  to 
the  world  a  book  which  was  needed  is  proved  by 
the  fact  that  it  is  now  appearing  in  seven  languages, 
and  the  original  is  in  its  second  edition. 

I  have  purposely  not  converted  all  weights,  tem- 
peratures, etc.  into  those  used  in  this  country,  for 
the  student  will  prefer  to  have  them  in  the  original ; 
where,  however,  it  has  seemed  preferable  to  give  the 

vii 


viii  PREFACE 

practical  man  the  weights  and  measures  to  which  he 
is  accustomed  this  has  been  done.  In  any  case  the 
relation  between  the  two  systems  hardly  requires 
a  greater  knowledge  than  that  i  kilogram  (kg.)  = 
2-2  lbs. ;  i  litre  =  if  pints ;  I  oz.  =  28  grms.  (g.). 

W.  Goodwin. 

South-Eastern  Agricultural  College, 
Wye,  Kent. 


CONTENTS 


PART  I 

THE    COMPOSITION,    DIGESTION,    AND    UTILISA- 
TION  OF   FEEDING-STUFFS  . 


The  Composition  of  Feeding-Stuffs 

3 

i.  Water     .... 

4 

2.  The  proteins 

5 

3.  Non-protein  nitrogenous  substances 

8 

4.  The  fats  and  oils 

10 

5.  Crude  fibre          . 

12 

6.  The  nitrogen-free  extract 

14 

7.  Mineral  substances  or  ash 

15 

CHAPTER   II 

The  Digestion  of  the  Food 

1.  Mastication         ..... 

2.  The  processes  of  digestion 

3.  The  determination  of  the  digestibility  of  foods 

4.  The  extent  of  digestion  under  various  conditions 


iS 
18 

21 
27 
3i 


The    Utilisation    of 
Animal  Body 

1.  General  considerations  . 

2.  Methods  of  investigation 

3.  The  energy  metabolism 


CHAPTER    III 
Digested     Nutrients 


41 
4i 
44 
48 


IX 


x  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   IV 

PACE 

Metabolism  .  .  .  .  .  .  •     51 

i.  Fasting  metabolism        .  .  .  .  .51 

2.  Insufficient  feeding         .  .  .  .  .55 

3.  Abundant  food  supply — formation  of  fat  and  flesh  .     58 

a.  The  effect  of  protein  .  .  .  -59 

b.  The  effect  of  non-protein  nitrogenous  substances     65 

c.  The  effect  of  nitrogen-free  nutrients  .  .     69 

d.  The  action  of  nitrogen-free  nutrients  upon  the 

protein  and  fat  metabolism         .  .  .     7 1 

e.  Formation  of  body  fat  from  food  fat         .  .     74 

/.  Formation  of  body  fat  from  carbohydrates  .     77 

g.  The  utilisation  of  complete  foods  .  .  .82 

h.  The  effect  of  mineral  substances    .  .  -93 

i.  The  effect  of  water  .  ..  .  -99 

CHAPTER   V 

The  Utilisation  of  Food  and  Energy  in  Muscular 
Work — Laws  of  Production  of  Energy        .  .104 

1.  The  sources  of  muscular  energy  .  .  .104 

a.  Protein  as  a  source  of  muscular  energy     .  .104 

b.  The    nitrogen-free    nutrients    (fats    and    carbo- 

hydrates) as  a  source  of  muscular  energy  .   106 

c.  Storage  of  protein  in  consequence  of  muscular 

work         ......   108 

2.  The  relation  between  metabolism  and  muscular  work  .109 


PART  II 

THE  FEEDING  -  STUFFS  —  THEIR  PROPERTIES, 
CONSERVATION,  PREPARATION,  AND  APPLIC- 
ABILITY    113 

CHAPTER    I 

The  Nutrient  Contents,  Palatableness,  and  Dur- 
ability of  the  Feeding-Stuffs  .  .  .  115 


CONTENTS 


XI 


CHAPTER    II 


Conservation  of  Feeding-Stuffs             .            . 

PAGE 

.   121 

i.  The  making  of  hay         .... 

.   121 

2.  Sour  fodder  and  silage  .... 

.   125 

3.  The  storage  of  cereal  grains 

.   130 

4.  The  keeping  of  roots  and  tubers 

.   132 

5.  The  artificial  drying  of  feeding-stuffs    .             . 

.  135 

CHAPTER    III 

Preparation  of  Feeding-Stuffs  . 

.   137 

1.  Chopping  and  grinding 

•   137 

2.  Moistening  with  cold  water 

.   140 

3.  Cooking  and  steaming    .... 

.   140 

4.  Roasting             ..... 

.   142 

5.  Steeping  in  water           .... 

.   142 

6.  Heating  under  pressure  with  caustic  soda 

.   144 

7.  Heating  under  pressure  with  hydrochloric  acid 

.   144 

8.  Malting  and  preparation  of  sweet  mashes 

.   145 

9.  Artificial  digestion  of  foods 

.   146 

10.  Fermentation     ..... 

.   147 

11.  Sour  fodder        ..... 

.   147 

12.  Feeding  loaves  ..... 

.   148 

CHAPTER  IV 


Description  of  the  Feeding-Stuffs 
1 .  Green  fodder  and  hay  . 
Chafi  and  straw 
Roots  and  tubers 
Grains  and  seeds 
By-products  from  flour  mills 
Residues  from  oil  mills 
Residues  from  the  manufacture  of  starch 
By-products  from  the  manufacture  of  sugar 
Residues  from  fermentation  processes  . 
Feeding-stuffs  of  animal  origin  . 


9- 
10. 


11.  Cattle  powders 


150 
150 
169 

173 
180 
190 
195 
204 
20  7 
213 
217 
224 


xii  CONTENTS 

PART  III 

PAGE 

THE  FEEDING  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  UNDER 
THE  CONDITIONS  USUALLY  FOUND  IN  PRAC- 
TICE .  .  .  .  .  .  .227 

CHAPTER   I 

General  Considerations  —  Experimental  Trials  in 
Practice    .......  229 

CHAPTER  II 
Maintenance  Ration  for  Oxen  at  Rest  .  .  243 

CHAPTER   III 

Maintenance  Ration  for  Sheep — The  Production  of 
Wool  .  .  .  .  .  .  .247 

CHAPTER   IV 

The  Fattening  of  Full-grown  Animals  .  .253 

1.  The  fattening  of  grown  ruminants         .  .  .261 

2.  The  fattening  of  grown  pigs      ....  268 

CHAPTER   V 

The  Feeding  of  Working  Animals         .  .  .271 

1.  The  feeding  of  draught  oxen      ....  273 

2.  The  feeding  of  horses     .....  275 

CHAPTER   VI 

The  Feeding  of  Growing  Animals  for  Breeding  or 
Fattening  ......  283 

1.  The  feeding  of  calves     .....  289 

2.  The  feeding  of  lambs     .....  294 

3.  The  feeding  of  growing  pigs       ....  296 


CONTENTS  xiii 


CHAPTER   VII 

The  Feeding  of  Milch  Cattle     . 

i .  The  formation  of  milk   .... 
2.  The  influence  of  the  constitution  of  the  animal  upon 
the  formation  of  milk 

a.  Breed  and  individuality     . 

b.  The  period  of  lactation 

c.  The  age  of  the  cow 


The  influence  of  other  factors  on  the  formation  of  milk  311 


a.  The  frequency  and  manner  of  milking 

b.  Performance  of  work  by  cows 

c.  Other  influences :  treatment  and  care 

4.  Methods  for  ascertaining   the   effect  of  food  on  the 

secretion  of  milk         .... 

a.  The  period  system 

b.  The  group  system  .... 

5.  The  effect  of  food  on  the  milk  production 

a.  General  considerations 

b.  The  effect  of  the  quantity  of  food  on  the  milk 

secretion  ..... 

c.  The   effect   of    food-protein    on    the    production 

of  milk    ..... 


d.  The  effect  of  non -protein  nitrogenous  substances  327 


e.  The  effect  of  non-nitrogenous  nutrients    . 
/.  The  so-called  specific  effects  of  the  food-stuffs 
g.  The  effect  of  food-stuffs  injurious  to  health 
Food  for  milch  cattle    .... 

APPENDIX 


PAGE 
306 

306 

308 
308 
3IO 
311 


311 
314 
316 

317 
3*7 

3IQ- 
321 
321 

323 
325 


329 
334 
338 
333 


Tables  for  the  Calculation  of  Rations  .  .  353 

Method  of  using  the  Tables  .  .  .  '353 

Table  I  —  Composition,  Digestibility,  and  Starch 
Equivalents  of  various  Feeding-Stuffs        .  .  360 

Table  II — The  Digestibility  of  the  Feeding-Stuffs 
(Digestibility  Coefficients)  from  Experiments  on 
Animals      .......  379 

Table  III — Standard  Rations      ....  392 

Index  .  .  .  .  .  .  .397 


PART   I 

THE   COMPOSITION,    DIGESTION,   AND 
UTILISATION  OF  FEEDING-STUFFS 


THE    SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING 
OF  ANIMALS 

CHAPTER   I 

THE   COMPOSITION   OF  FEEDING-STUFFS 

THE  natural  products  of  the  animal  and  vege- 
table kingdoms  which  serve  for  the  nourish- 
ment of  domestic  animals  have  a  very  varied 
composition.  There  is  hardly  one  of  them  that 
contains  less  than  thirty  to  forty  different  com- 
ponents, and  to  this  number  additions  are  con- 
tinually being  made.  In  order  to  get  an  insight 
into  this  crowded  department  it  is  necessary  to 
group  together  those  materials  which  resemble  one 
another  in  their  properties,  or  in  their  nutritive 
value.  The  chemical  examination  of  a  food-stuff 
is  for  this  reason  generally  confined  to  a  determina- 
tion of  the  quantity  of  (i)  water,  (2)  protein,  or 
albuminoids,  (3)  non-protein  substances,  such  as 
amides  and  amino  acids,  (4)  fat,  or  oil,  (5)  crude 
fibre,  (6)  nitrogen-free  extract  substances,  or  carbo- 
hydrates, (7)  ash  and  sand,  which  it  contains. 


4      SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

(i)  Water. 

That  portion  of  a  food  which  disappears  on 
drying  is  called  the  water,  or  moisture.  If  the 
percentage  of  water  in  a  food-stuff,  such  as  grass 
or  hay,  had  to  be  determined,  it  would  not  be  suffi- 
cient to  dry  a  sample  at  ordinary  temperatures  in 
the  air,  for  in  this  way  the  whole  of  the  water  would 
not  be  driven  off.  A  portion  would  still  remain, 
varying  from  11-20%  of  the  total  weight,  and  the 
sample  would  only  be  "  air  dried."  Water  can  only 
be  completely  driven  off  by  drying  the  finely  ground 
sample  of  food  for  a  considerable  time  at  ioo°  C. 
Usually  this  is  continued  until  the  weight  of  the 
substance  remains  constant,  and  this  is  the  method 
adopted  when  an  exact  chemical  analysis  is  being 
made.  Many  feeding-stuffs,  particularly  those  that 
have  been  acted  upon  by  bacteria  or  moulds, 
e.g.  silage,  as  well  as  the  plants  and  seeds  contain- 
ing ethereal  oils,  lose  some  other  substances  in 
addition  to  water  when  heated  at  ioo°.  These 
volatile  materials,  such  as  acetic  acid,  lactic  acid, 
butyric  acid,  some  ethereal  oils,  ammonia,  etc., 
necessitate  special  precautions  being  taken  when 
the  water  has  to  be  estimated  in  a  food  in  which 
they  are  present. 

That  which  is  left  after  complete  desiccation  in 
the  manner  described  above  is  called  the  "  dry 
matter." 


COMPOSITION   OF  FEEDING-STUFFS      5 

The  tables  in  the  Appendix  of  this  volume  show 
clearly  how  considerably  the  amount  of  water  in 
the  various  feeding-stuffs  varies.  Those  which  con- 
tain the  most  water  are  fresh  slices  of  beetroot, 
with  93  %  water  ;  then  the  roots  and  tubers,  with 
68-90%;  followed  by  the  green  fodders,  with 
70-90%.  Hay  and  straw  contain  about  12-17%, 
cereal  grains  11-15%,  whilst  oil  cakes  and  oil  cake 
meals  have  only  9-13%.  As  a  rule  oily  seeds  (7-9%) 
and  dried  by-products,  such  as  brewers'  grains 
(7-12%),  contain  the  least  amount  of  moisture. 

A  knowledge  of  the  quantity  of  water  in  a  food- 
stuff is  of  great  importance,  not  only  as  an  indica- 
tion of  its  feeding  value,  but  also  in  respect  to  its 
keeping  properties.  Most  meals  and  cakes  easily 
undergo  decomposition  if  they  contain  more  than 
14%  of  water. 

(2)  The  Proteins. 

The  proteins  are  a  group  of  substances  which  vary 
a  good  deal  in  their  properties,  but  agree  in  contain- 
ing nitrogen.  White  of  egg  (albumin),  the  casein 
of  milk,  lean  meat,  wheat  gluten,  are  amongst  the 
best-known  of  these  substances.  In  spite  of  the 
variations  which  they  show  in  chemical  compo- 
sition there  is  sufficient  agreement-  to  enable  them 
to  be  placed  in  one  class.  The  proteins  contain 
from  50-6-55-2%  of  carbon,  15-0-18-4%  of 
nitrogen,    6-5-7-3%   of   hydrogen,    20-8-23-6%   of 


6      SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

oxygen,  along  with  0-3-2-3%  of  sulphur.  In  some 
cases  phosphorus  is  found,  and  in  others  a  little 
iron. 

When  the  proteins  are  pure  and  dry  they  form 
a  horny  substance,  which  melts  in  the  flame  and 
then  burns  to  a  black  coal-like  mass.  At  the  same 
time  fumes,  which  have  the  smell  of  burning  hair, 
are  given  off.  The  products  of  such  decomposition 
vary  considerably  in  their  properties,  according  to 
the  substance  which  is  heated. 

The  proteins  are  further  distinguished  by  the 
ease  or  difficulty  with  which  they  dissolve  in  various 
solvents,  such  as  water,  alcohol,  salt  solution, 
caustic  soda  solution.  They  may  be  also  charac- 
terised by  another  set  of  properties,  e.g.  coagulation 
on  heating,  precipitation  from  solution  by  metallic 
salts  or  tannic  acid,  distinctive  colouration  when 
acted  upon  by  various  reagents. 

It  was  thought  for  a  long  time  that  all  the  nitrogen 
which  is  found  in  feeding-stuffs  was  present  in  the 
form  of  albumin.  For  this  reason,  and  also  on 
account  of  the  impossibility  of  obtaining  the  pro- 
teins from  the  plant  or  the  animal  in  a  sufficiently 
pure  state  to  be  weighed,  it  has  been  the  custom 
to  estimate  the  amount  of  nitrogen  in  a  food,  and 
then  calculate  from  this  the  percentage  of  protein 
matter.  The  proteins  were  supposed  to  contain  on 
an  average  16%  of  nitrogen,  so  by  multiplying  the 
amount  of  nitrogen  found  by  6-25  the  weight  of 


COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDING-STUFFS      7 

proteins  was  obtained.  It  was  known  that  this 
method  was  not  quite  correct,  for  nitrogenous  sub- 
stances of  a  non-protein  nature  had  already  been 
found  in  different  parts  of  the  plant.  The  amount 
of  these  non-protein  materials  was  considered, 
though,  to  be  so  small  as  to  be  negligible.  The 
products  obtained  in  this  way  by  calculation  from 
the  nitrogen  found  in  the  food  were  called  "  crude 
protein,"  or  "  nitrogenous  substances." 

It  was  not  until  comparatively  recently  (1879) 
that  the  nitrogenous  substances  of  a  non-protein 
nature  were  shown  to  be  widely  distributed  in  the 
plant  and  animal  kingdoms,  and  to  be  present  in 
considerable  quantities  in  some  food-stuffs.  This 
led  to  a  distinction  being  made  between  "  crude 
protein,"  which  expresses  all  the  nitrogen-containing 
compounds,  and  "  pure  protein,"  or,  as  it  is  named 
in  some  places,  "the  proteids."  When  making 
an  analysis  of  a  feeding-stuff  advantage  is  taken  of 
the  property  which  proteins  possess  of  combining 
with  metallic  salts  or  tannic  acid,  whereas  non- 
proteins do  not.  In  this  way  protein  can  be 
separated  from  non-protein  and  the  quantities  of 
each  determined.  For  the  analysis  the  finely- 
ground  food-stuff  is  treated  with  warm  water,  and 
the  substance  to  be  used  for  precipitation  is  added. 
The  proteins  are  in  this  way  precipitated,  and  the 
nitrogen  can  then  be  determined  either  in  the  solu- 
tion which  is  left  after  the  precipitation,  or  in  the 


8      SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

precipitate  itself.  By  this  method  proteins  are 
isolated  from  non-proteins,  and  by  using  the  same 
factor,  6-25,  the  amount  of  either,  or  both,  can  be 
got. 

Dried  animal  residues,  such  as  meat-  or  fish-meal, 
or  the  gluten  of  wheat,  contain  the  highest  propor- 
tion of  crude  protein.  Next  come  various  oil  cakes, 
dried  brewers'  grains,  leguminous  and  oily  seeds, 
whilst  hay  made  from  leguminous  crops,  cereal 
grains  and  their  by-products  follow.  Hay  made 
from  grass,  dried  potatoes  and  green  fodders  are 
poorer  in  protein,  whilst,  as  is  seen  in  the  tables 
in  the  Appendix,  straw  and  chaff  contain  least  of  all. 

(3)  Nitrogen-containing  substances  of  non-protein 
nature. 

These  non-protein  substances,  often  called  amides 
or  amino  compounds,  show  very  great  differences 
in  their  properties.  They  all  agree,  though,  in 
containing  nitrogen,  but  are  not  of  a  protein  or 
albumin  nature.  In  this  class  may  be  placed 
ammonia,  which  is  found  in  small  quantities  in 
silage  ;  asparagine,  which  is  a  crystalline  substance, 
first  found  in  asparagus  and  later  in  many  young 
shoots  and  quickly  growing  green  plants  ;  gluta- 
mine,  an  easily  soluble  substance,  which  can  be 
got  from  the  beetroot ;  and,  lastly,  lecithine, 
which  resembles  fat,  and  consists  of  the  nitrogenous 
material  combined  with  free  fatty  acid,  glycerine, 


COMPOSITION   OF   FEEDING-STUFFS      9 

and  phosphoric  acid.  In  addition  to  the  above- 
mentioned  there  are  many  other  similar  compounds 
found  in  animal  and  vegetable  products.  The 
greater  portion  of  the  non-protein  nitrogenous 
compounds  arise  from  the  decomposition  of  protein 
matter  in  the  living  plant,  particularly  in  the  parts 
where  rapid  growth  is  taking  place.  Another  por- 
tion of  the  non-proteins  are  intermediate  products 
formed  in  the  building  up  of  proteins  from  simpler 
substances,  for  the  nitrogenous  matter  (nitric  acid 
and  ammonia)  taken  in  by  the  roots  first  forms 
non-proteins,  and  these  are  further  elaborated  and 
become  proteins.  Where  bacteria  or  moulds  flourish 
it  is  found  as  a  rule  that  decomposition  of  proteins 
is  taking  place  with  the  formation  of  non-proteins. 
The  chief  points  to  be  noted  with  regard  to  the 
formation  and  distribution  of  non-protein  sub- 
stances are  : — 

(1)  The  quicker  the  rate  of  growth  of  a  plant, 
that  is,  the  younger  and  tenderer  it  is,  the  richer  it 
tends  to  be  in  non-proteins.  In  young  shoots, 
meadow  grass,  germinated  seeds,  etc.,  fairly  large 
quantities  are  to  be  found. 

(2)  The  nearer  the  plant  approaches  maturation 
the  less  does  the  amount  of  non-protein  nitrogen 
become.  Ripe  grain  or  straw  are  comparatively 
poor  in  non-protein  matter. 

(3)  The  richer  the  plants,  or  parts  of  plants,  are 
in   water   so   much  greater   is   the   percentage   of 


io    SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

amide  nitrogen.  This  is  well  seen  in  root  crops, 
in  plants  of  the  melon  order,  in  berries,  and  in 
juicy  fruits,  where  the  greater  part  of  the  nitrogen 
is  not  in  the  form  of  proteins. 

(4)  Feeding-stuffs  which  have  undergone  acid 
fermentation,  or  have  been  acted  upon  by  bacteria 
or  moulds,  contain  more  non-protein  substance 
than  they  did  in  their  original  condition. 

As  already  stated,  crude  protein  includes  protein 
and  non-protein,  or  amides.  If  the  amount  of 
pure  protein  in  a  food  be  deducted  from  the  crude 
protein,  then  the  nitrogenous  compounds  left  are 
in  the  non-protein  or  amide  form. 

The  tables  in  the  Appendix  do  not  distinguish 
between  the  protein  and  non-protein,  but  this 
can  easily  be  done  by  subtracting  the  digestible 
protein  from  the  total  digestible  crude  protein. 
As  these  amido  compounds  are  all  of  them  readily 
soluble  in  water,  and  easily  pass  through  animal 
membrane,  they  are  regarded  as  being  perfectly 
digestible. 

(4)  The  fats  and  oils. 

Fats  and  oils  are  compounds  of  glycerine  with 
various  fatty  acids,  such  as  stearic,  palmitic,  and 
oleic.  In  each  fat  or  oil  several  of  these  acids  are 
present,  and  it  depends  upon  the  proportions  of 
these  whether  the  fat  is  liquid,  semi-solid,  or  solid. 
If  stearic  or  palmitic  acids  predominate,  then  a 


COMPOSITION   OF   FEEDING-STUFFS    n 

solid  fat,  similar  to  tallow,  is  the  result.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  oleic  acid  is  the  chief  acid  present,  then 
the  fat  at  ordinary  temperatures  has  a  more  or  less 
fluid  form,  and  is  generally  called  an  oil.  In  this 
book  the  word  fat  will  be  used  to  denote  all  sub- 
stances of  this  class,  whether  solid  or  liquid.  Many 
oils,  e.g.  linseed,  hemp,  sunflower  seed,  take  up 
oxygen  when  exposed  to  the  air,  and  when  spread 
in  a  thin  layer  become  solid.  They  are  called  on 
this  account  drying  oils.  In  most  fats  free  fatty 
acids  are  found  in  addition  to  the  compounds 
formed  from  fatty  acids  and  glycerine.  Fats 
freshly  extracted  from  the  animal  body,  or  from 
new  ripe  seeds,  contain  only  small  amounts  of  these 
free  fatty  acids.  Where,  however,  oily  seeds  are 
not  fully  ripe,  or  where,  owing  to  bad  weather  at 
the  time  of  harvesting,  they  have  sprouted,  large 
quantities  of  free  fatty  acids  are  to  be  found. 

When  feeding-stuffs  rich  in  fats  are  stored  it  is 
also  found  that  the  percentage  of  free  fatty  acids 
rises,  particularly  if  there  is  much  moisture  present. 
Such  food-stuffs  soon  acquire  a  sour  taste  and  smell, 
and  in  time  become  quite  rancid,  owing  to  the 
further  decomposition  of  the  free  fatty  acids. 

In  order  to  determine  the  quantity  of  fat  in  a 
feeding-stuff  a  finely  ground  sample  is  extracted 
with  some  solvent  that  will  dissolve  the  fat.  Ether 
is  generally  used  for  the  extraction,  and  the  residue 
left  after  distilling  off  the  ether  is  dried  and  weighed. 


12    SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

By  this  means,  unfortunately,  not  only  the  fat 
but  other  substances — such  as  wax,  colouring 
matters,  and  in  some  cases  organic  acids,  which 
are  soluble  in  ether — are  weighed  along  with  the 
fat.  The  separation  of  these  compounds  from  the 
fat  is  not  easy,  so  in  order  to  indicate  that  the  fat 
is  not  pure  it  is  customary  to  call  it  "  crude  fat  " 
or  "  ether  extract."  Oily  seeds  and  waste  animal 
products,  such  as  greaves  and  tallow  refuse,  are 
amongst  the  food-stuffs  containing  the  most  fat. 
Then  come  the  oil  cakes,  oil  cake  meals,  brewers' 
grains,  and  other  by-products  from  distilleries, 
flour  mills,  and  starch  manufactories.  The  cereal 
grains,  such  as  oats  and  maize,  and  the  leguminous 
seeds,  such  as  soja  beans  or  lupines,  take  the  next 
place,  whilst  roots,  tubers,  green  fodders,  hay  and 
straw  are  amongst  the  poorest  in  fat. 

(5)  Crude  fibre. 

If  a  small  quantity  of  finely-ground  food  material 
be  boiled  successively  with  given  quantities  of 
dilute  sulphuric  acid,  water,  dilute  caustic  potash, 
and  again  with  water,  a  residue  is  left,  which,  after 
washing  with  alcohol  and  ether,  may  be  dried  and 
weighed.  This  residue  consists  principally  of  crude 
fibre  along  with  a  little  crude  protein  and  mineral 
substances,  and  if  these  last  two  are  estimated 
separately  in  a  portion  of  the  residue,  and  their 
weight  deducted  from  the  total  weight,  then  the 


COMPOSITION   OF  FEEDING-STUFFS    13 

true  quantity  of  crude  fibre  is  obtained.  Crude 
fibre  obtained  in  the  above  manner  is  free  from 
nitrogen,  and  consists  of  a  mixture  of  cellulose 
pentosans,  lignin,  and  cutin. 

Cellulose  is  closely  related  to  starch  in  its  chemical 
composition,  and  is  found  in  an  almost  pure  state 
in  cotton-wool  which  has  been  freed  from  fat. 
Like  all  the  components  of  the  crude  fibre  it  is  in- 
soluble in  water  and  dilute  acids  and  alkalies. 
Strong  acids  (sulphuric,  hydrochloric),  on  the  other 
hand,  attack  it  and  convert  it  into  glucose. 

The  pentosans  have  not  yet  been  prepared  in  a 
pure  form.  Their  presence  in  crude  fibre  is  inferred 
from  the  fact  that  on  boiling  this  portion  of  the 
plant  with  dilute  acid,  characteristic  pentose  sugars, 
such  as  xylose,  are  formed.  The  pentosans  must 
be  regarded  as  being  the  mother  substance  of  these 
sugars. 

Cellulose  and  the  pentosans  have  the  same  per- 
centage composition  (44-4%  carbon),  whilst  lignin 
and  cutin,  which  are  less  well  known,  are  richer  in 
carbon,  the  former  having  55-60%,  and  the  latter 
68-70%.  The  components  of  the  crude  fibre  are 
so  intermingled  that  the  particles  of  cellulose  and 
the  pentosans  may  be  embedded  in  the  cutin  and 
lignin.  These  two  compounds  are  often  grouped 
together  as  "  incrusting  materials."  The  higher 
the  percentage  of  lignin  and  cutin  in  the  crude 
fibre  the  closer  does  it  approach  wood  in  its  pro- 


14    SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

per  ties.  The  various  kinds  of  straw,  the  awns  and 
husks  of  grains,  and  the  varieties  of  hay,  etc.,  are 
richest  in  crude  fibre,  as  is  seen  in  Table  I  of  the 
Appendix.  On  the  other  hand,  roots  and  tubers,  awn- 
less  seeds  of  cereals,  and  most  of  the  seeds  freed  from 
husks,  contain  only  a  little.  Foods  of  animal  origin, 
and  also  molasses,  are  practically  free  from  fibre. 

(6)  The  nitrogen-free  extract. 
Under  the  above  designation  are  included  all 
those  constituents  of  feeding-stuffs  which  do  not 
belong  to  any  of  the  groups  already  mentioned, 
or  are  not  mineral  substances.  The  percentage 
amount  of  nitrogen-free  extract  in  any  food  is 
therefore  found  by  adding  together  the  percentage 
of  water,  crude  protein,  fat,  crude  fibre,  and  ash, 
and  subtracting  them  from  ioo.  It  is  impossible, 
owing  to  the  great  differences  found  amongst  the 
nitrogen-free  extract  substances,  to  determine  them 
directly.  In  this  group  it  is  usual  to  include  (i) 
carbohydrates,  (2)  pentosans,  (3)  incrusting  ma- 
terials, (4)  organic  acids.  The  carbohydrates, 
which  are  the  chief  representatives  of  the  nitrogen- 
free  extract  substances,  include  glucose  or  grape 
sugar,  levulose  or  fruit  sugar,  saccharose  or  cane 
sugar,  lactose  or  milk  sugar,  starch,  and  the  dex- 
trines.  All  members  of  the  group  which  are  not 
already  classified  as  sugars  are  converted  into  them 
by  boiling  with  dilute  acids,  grape  sugar  or  fruit 


COMPOSITION   OF  FEEDING-STUFFS    15 

sugar  being  the  usual  sugars  formed.  The  pento- 
sans and  the  incrusting  material,  both  of  which 
have  already  been  mentioned,  may  be  separated 
into  two  portions.  One  remains  undissolved,  as 
was  seen  in  the  preparation  of  the  crude  fibre, 
whilst  the  second  and  greater  portion  goes  into 
solution,  and  must  therefore  be  reckoned  as  nitrogen- 
free  extract. 

The  organic  acids  are  generally  only  present  in 
small  quantities  in  the  natural  food-stuffs.  They 
may  be  there  partly  in  the  free  state  and  partly 
combined  with  potash,  soda,  or  lime  to  form  salts. 
The  chief  representatives  in  the  vegetable  kingdom 
are  malic,  tartaric,  citric,  and  oxalic  acids.  Those 
feeding-stuffs  which  have  undergone  acid  fermenta- 
tion contain  fairly  large  quantities  of  lactic  acid 
along  with  butyric  and  acetic  acids,  which  are  the 
results  of  bacterial  activity. 

Roots,  tubers,  and  by-products  of  these — such 
as  potato  slump,  slices  of  sugar-beet,  molasses — are 
distinguished  by  the  quantity  of  nitrogen-free  ex- 
tract which  they  contain.  The  cereal  grains  and 
the  meals  made  from  them  take  the  next  place, 
whilst  some  products  of  the  animal  kingdom — meat- 
and  fish-meal,  dried  blood,  etc. — come  last. 

(7)  The  mineral  substances^  or  ash. 
To  determine  the  amount  of  mineral  matter  or 
ash  in  a  feeding-stuff,  a  known  quantity  of  it  is 


16    SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

burnt,  and  the  ash  which  is  left  is  ignited  until  it 
becomes  white.  When  prepared  in  this  way  the 
ash  generally  contains  small  particles  of  unburnt 
carbon.  If  there  is  much  lime  or  potash  in  the  food 
the  ash  may  contain  carbon  dioxide  as  well,  and 
in  many  cases  this  has  combined  so  firmly  with  the 
constituents  of  the  ash  that  it  cannot  be  driven  off 
by  ignition.  For  this  reason  it  is  usual  to  call  the 
residue  left,  after  ignition  of  a  sample  of  a  feeding- 
stuff,  "  the  crude  ash."  For  most  purposes  a 
determination  of  the  crude  ash  suffices,  but  if  more 
exact  figures  are  required,  the  carbon  and  carbon 
dioxide  have  to  be  specially  estimated,  and  the 
amount  of  these  deducted  from  the  crude  ash,  leav- 
ing what  is  termed  the  "  pure  ash." 

If  from  the  total  dry  matter  of  any  food  which 
has  been  analysed  the  ash  is  deducted,  then  the 
quantity  of  organic  substance  present  is  obtained. 
This  "  organic  matter  "  consists  of  all  the  com- 
bustible portion  of  the  food — crude  protein,  crude 
fat,  nitrogen-free  extract. 

The  ash  from  vegetable  food-stuffs  contains 
mineral  matter,  the  most  common  substances  pre- 
sent being  potash,  soda,  lime,  magnesia,  compounds 
of  iron  and  manganese,  alumina,  phosphoric  acid, 
silica,  chlorine,  all  of  which  have  been  taken  up 
by  the  roots  from  the  soil.  In  addition  to  these 
there  are  small  particles  of  other  incombustible 
substances,  such  as  sand,  earth,  dust,  etc.,  which 


COMPOSITION   OF  FEEDING-STUFFS    17 

have  adhered  to  the  plant,  and  so  got  into  the  ash. 
In  commercial  feeding-stuffs  gypsum,  chalk,  fine 
earth  or  sand,  are  sometimes  found.  They  may 
be  there  by  accident,  or  they  may  have  been  wilfully 
added  for  purposes  of  adulteration.  Injurious  sub- 
stances— such  as  arsenic,  copper,  lead,  zinc,  etc. — 
may  also  get  into  the  ash  either  by  sticking  to  the 
plant  in  the  form  of  dust  or  small  particles  of  earth, 
or  else  by  way  of  the  plant  roots.  Where  it  is  a 
question  of  solid  matter  adhering  to  the  plant,  the 
injurious  substance  may  come  from  particles  of 
slag,  or  from  sewage  water,  or  if  absorbed  by  the 
roots  the  manure  is  usually  the  source. 

The  quantity  of  mineral  substances  found  in 
fodder  plants  depends  not  only  upon  the  kind  and 
size  of  the  plant,  but  also  upon  the  soil,  manure, 
and  weather.  As  a  rule  a  rich  soil,  or  the  applica- 
tion of  plenty  of  mineral  manures,  raises  the  ash 
content  of  the  plant.  Periods  of  drought  decrease 
the  amount  of  mineral  substances  in  the  plant,  par- 
ticularly as  regards  lime  and  phosphoric  acid. 


CHAPTER    II 

THE   DIGESTION   OF  THE   FOOD 

FROM  the  moment  that  the  food  is  taken  into 
the  mouth  up  to  the  time  it  leaves  the  body 
as  faeces,  it  is  subjected  to  a  continuous  series  of 
changes.  The  food  is  first  masticated,  that  is, 
ground  up  into  small  pieces  by  the  teeth,  and  is  then 
subjected  to  the  action  of  the  various  digestive 
juices  which  renders  the  food  capable  of  absorption 
into  the  body. 

(i)  Mastication. 

Mastication  begins  at  once  while  the  food  is  being 
eaten.  During  this  process  a  number  of  glands 
in  the  mouth  pour  out  saliva  which  saturates  the 
food  and  assists  the  work  of  mastication. 

Animals  such  as  the  horse  and  pig  which  have  a 
simple  stomach  do  not  remasticate  their  food  as 
the  ruminants  do.  This  latter  group  of  animals 
have,  as  is  well  known,  four  divisions  in  the  stomach, 
and  the  food  is  at  first  only  chewed  sufficiently  to 
allow  of  it  being  swallowed.  Each  mouthful  passes 
to    the   first    two    divisions    of   the    stomach — the 

18 


DIGESTION   OF  THE  FOOD  19 

rumen  and  the  reticulum — which  may  be  simply 
regarded  as  store  places  for  the  food.  In  these 
two  compartments  of  the  stomach  the  food  is 
thoroughly  mixed  with  the  saliva  and  any  water 
which  may  have  been  drunk,  the  walls  of  the 
stomach  assisting  in  the  process  of  mixing.  Some 
time  after  eating,  small  portions  of  the  softened 
food  are  brought  up  again  (regurgitated)  into  the 
mouth,  where  they  are  masticated  and  salivated 
for  a  second  time.  The  return  of  the  food  to  the 
mouth  is  performed  by  the  help  of  special  muscles 
aided  by  gases,  such  as  carbon  dioxide  and  marsh 
gas,  which  arise  from  the  food.  After  remastication 
the  food  passes  chiefly  to  the  third  stomach  (omasum, 
manyplies,  or  psalterium)  by  way  of  the  oesophageal 
groove.  The  cavity  of  the  omasum  is  divided  by 
means  of  leaf-like  extensions  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane provided  with  special  muscles,  giving  a  sieve- 
like structure.  By  the  slow  contraction  of  the 
walls  of  the  omasum  and  by  the  rubbing  together 
of  the  leaf-like  membranes,  the  food  is  still  further 
kneaded  and  ground  up.  When  it  is  sufficiently 
fine  it  passes  to  the  fourth  division  of  the  ruminant 
stomach — the  abomasum  or  rennet,  which  is  the 
real  digestive  stomach,  and  resembles  the  simple 
stomach  of  other  animals.  The  abomasum  and 
the  succeeding  portion  of  the  alimentary  canal — 
the  small  and  large  intestines — undergo  peculiar 
movements    when    food    is    in    them.     From    the 


20    SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

similarity  of  these  movements  to  those  of  a  worm 
they  have  been  called  the  vermicular  movements, 
and  they  serve  to  further  disintegrate  the  food  and 
mix  it  with  the  digestive  juices. 

From  the  above  description  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  ruminants  possess  a  much  more  perfect  arrange- 
ment for  the  grinding  of  food  than  do  animals  with 
a  simple  stomach.  Cattle,  sheep,  and  goats,  thanks 
to  their  compound  stomachs,  are  better  able  to 
utilise  the  coarser  and  harder  food-stuffs  than  are 
horses  and  pigs  in  which  the  first  three  stomachs 
are  absent.  Horses  usually  chew  their  food  with 
care,  but  if  they  are  rapid  eaters  chopped  hay 
should  be  mixed  with  the  food  to  ensure  proper 
mastication.  If  this  is  not  done,  then  considerable 
quantities  of  the  corn  pass  unused  through  the 
alimentary  canal  of  the  animal  and  so  their  nutritive 
value  is  lost.  Molasses  feeds  and  similar  articles 
which  are  usually  eaten  quickly  should  be  treated 
in  the  same  way  and  mixed  with  chopped  hay, 
or  else  given  after  the  corn  has  been  eaten.  Animals 
with  faulty  teeth  ought  to  have  their  corn  either 
crushed,  coarsely  ground,  or  soaked.  Pigs  chew 
their  food  very  slightly  and  should  therefore  get 
all  hard  or  coarse  feeding  materials  in  a  soaked, 
steamed,  or  boiled  condition. 

When  an  animal  masticates  a  hard  food-stuff 
containing  a  large  quantity  of  crude  fibre,  it  has 
to   perform   a  considerable   amount   of  work.     As 


DIGESTION   OF  THE   FOOD  21 

the  energy  required  for  the  performance  of  such 
work  has  to  come  from  the  food  it  is  easy  to  see 
that  the  value  of  such  a  food-stuff  must  be  less  on 
account  of  the  work  of  mastication.  At  a  later 
stage  this  subject  will  be  further  discussed. 

(2)  The  processes  of  digestion. 
Under  the  term  digestion  are  included  all  those 
processes  by  which  the  substances  contained  in  the 
food  are  converted  into  a  form  suitable  for  assimila- 
tion, or  absorption.  Grape  sugar,  fruit  sugar, 
organic  acids,  and  many  mineral  substances  require 
no  such  conversion,  they  are  absorbed  directly  if 
dissolved  in  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water.  On 
the  other  hand,  those  nutrients  which  cannot  pass 
through  the  walls  of  the  intestine,  or  are  insoluble 
in  water,  must  first  undergo  some  chemical  change 
before  they  can  enter  the  cells  of  the  alimentary 
canal.  The  change  usually  takes  the  form  of  a 
cleavage  or  splitting  up  into  some  simpler  sub- 
stances which  are  capable  of  absorption.  The 
majority  of  changes  of  this  kind  are  carried  out  by 
means  of  the  ferments  or  enzymes  present  in  the 
digestive  juices.  Bacteria  which  get  into  the  ali- 
mentary canal  from  the  food,  water,  or  air,  also 
take  part  in  the  process  of  digestion  and  multiply 
rapidly.  A  few  remarks  as  to  the  nature  of  enzymes 
may  fitly  be  mentioned  here.  They  are  classed 
along  with  the  albumens  and  have  the  property, 


22    SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

within  certain  limits  of  temperature,  of  transform- 
ing large  quantities  of  material  into  simpler  sub- 
stances without  themselves  undergoing  any  change 
as  far  as  can  be  proved.  The  enzyme  diastase, 
for  example,  which  is  found  in  malt,  is  able  to  con- 
vert starch,  in  the  form  of  paste,  into  maltose 
(malt  sugar)  and  dextrine.  Another  enzyme,  zymase, 
which  is  found  in  the  yeast  of  beer,  splits  up  maltose 
into  alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide. 

These  enzymes,  or  ferments,  are  widely  dis- 
tributed in  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  and 
the  effects  which  they  produce  are  all  based  upon 
natural  changes  which  the  materials  undergo.  It 
can  be  truly  said  that  without  these  enzymes  life 
would  be  impossible. 

The  digestive  fluids  act,  then,  by  reason  of  the 
enzymes  which  they  contain.  In  the  digestion  of 
the  food  five  different  juices  may  act  upon  it  during 
its  passage  through  the  alimentary  canal :  (i)  saliva, 
(2)  gastric  juice,  (3)  bile,  (4)  pancreatic  juice, 
(5)  intestinal  juice. 

The  chief  work  performed  by  the  saliva  seems 
to  consist  in  making  the  dry  food-stuff  soft  and 
slimy,  and  so  rendering  mastication  and  swallowing 
easy.  Where  such  a  process  is  not  necessary,  as 
with  roots,  distillery  waste,  milk,  etc.,  only  a  little 
saliva  is  secreted.  The  digestive  action  which  it 
has  upon  the  food  is  limited  almost  entirely  to  the 
starch,  which  is  changed  by  the  ferment  ptyalin  into 


DIGESTION   OF  THE  FOOD  23 

dextrine,  maltose,  and  grape  sugar.  In  the  case 
of  cooked  or  steamed  foods,  the  ptyalin  begins  to 
act  in  a  quarter  to  half  a  minute,  whilst  the  starch  of 
the  coarse  fodders  only  begins  to  be  changed  after 
the  saliva  has  acted  for  two  to  three  minutes. 
Saliva  contains  another  ferment  which  splits  up 
proteins,  but  it  appears  to  exercise  very  little  in- 
fluence. In  the  fourth  stomach  (abomasum)  of 
ruminants  and  in  the  simple  stomach  of  other 
mammals,  a  second  digestive  fluid,  the  gastric  juice, 
is  poured  out  upon  the  mass  of  food.  This  gastric 
juice  is  acid,  for  it  contains  free  hydrochloric  acid 
and  also  lactic  acid,  and  acts  upon  the  proteins  and 
fats  of  the  nutrients.  Under  the  action  of  the  pepsin 
of  the  gastric  juice  the  proteins  are  changed  into 
albumoses  and  peptones,  both  of  which  are  soluble 
and  can  easily  enter  into  the  blood  and  lymph  of  the 
animal.  Many  proteins,  such  as  the  casein  of  milk, 
are  coagulated  by  another  ferment  (rennet)  present 
in  the  gastric  juice  before  being  digested  in  the 
manner  already  mentioned.  A  third  ferment — 
lipase — acts  upon  the  fats,  splitting  them  up  into 
free  fatty  acids  and  glycerine  (see  p.  10).  The  other 
nutrients  of  the  food  are  not  appreciably  acted 
upon  by  the  acid  gastric  juice. 

The  partly-digested  food  passes  from  the  stomach 
into  the  small  intestine,  where  it  Is  mixed  with  two 
other  digestive  fluids — the  bile  and  the  pancreatic 
juice.     The  first  of  these,  the  bile,  plays  an  import- 


24    SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF  ANIMALS 

ant  part  in  the  digestion  of  the  fats,  for  it  dissolves 
a  large  quantity  of  the  fatty  acids  coming  from  the 
stomach,  as  well  as  emulsifying,  that  is,  dividing 
into  minute  drops,  the  unchanged  fat  of  the  food. 
The  bile  also  stimulates  the  muscles  of  the  small 
intestine  and  increases  its  movements. 

The  pancreatic  juice  is  a  clear,  colourless  liquid 
without  smell,  and  exerts  a  powerful  digestive 
action  upon  the  proteins  as  well  as  upon  the  fats 
and  starch.  The  enzyme  which  acts  upon  the 
proteins  is  known  as  trypsin,  and  it  converts  them 
not  only  into  albumoses  and  peptones,  as  was  the 
case  with  gastric  juice,  but  into  simpler  non-protein 
substances.  The  action  of  pancreatic  juice  upon  the 
fats  is  similar  to  that  in  the  stomach,  but  more  ener- 
getic, whereas  the  starch  is  changed  almost  instantly, 
substances  similar  to  those  formed  by  the  saliva  in 
the  mouth  being  the  result.  The  partially  digested 
food  next  meets  the  intestinal  juice,  the  effect  of 
which  is  to  change  any  remaining  protein  or  starch 
in  a  manner  similar  to  that  exercised  by  the  pan- 
creatic juice. 

To  the  action  of  these  various  digestive  fluids 
must  be  added  that  of  the  bacteria  which  play  an 
important  part  in  the  large  intestine  and  in  the 
vermiform  appendix.  In  the  ruminants  bacterial 
action  begins  even  in  the  first  stomach.  The 
bacteria  break  down  portions  of  the  food  and  use 
it  for  their  own  nutrition.     They  are  also  capable 


DIGESTION   OF   THE   FOOD  25 

of  splitting  up  the  proteins  into  simpler  compounds, 
transforming  in  various  ways  the  soluble  nitrogen- 
free  parts  of  the  food,  and  attacking  the  crude  fibre 
which  is  unacted  upon  by  the  various  digestive 
juices,  and  would  otherwise  undergo  no  change. 

Lactic  and  butyric  acids  are  amongst  the  sub- 
stances which  result  from  the  activity  of  the  bacteria 
upon  the  nitrogen-free  extract  and  crude  fibre. 
In  addition  to  these  acids  certain  gaseous  products, 
such  as  carbon  dioxide,  marsh  gas,  and  hydrogen, 
are  also  formed.  With  fattening  cattle  and  milch 
cows  the  quantity  of  marsh  gas  formed  daily  is  con- 
siderable, as  much  as  700  litres  (1  litre  =  if  pints) 
having  been  collected  from  one  animal.  The 
bacterial  decomposition  of  the  crude  fibre  renders 
available  many  substances  which  would  otherwise 
not  be  acted  upon  by  the  digestive  juices  and  so 
would  be  lost.  Bacteria,  then,  are  of  considerable 
service  in  this  respect,  and  they  can  be  also  very 
useful  to  the  animal  in  other  ways.  Some  bacteria 
have  the  power  of  forming  proteins  from  certain 
non-protein  substances,  probably  with  the  assistance 
of  nitrogen- free  extract  substances;  and  such  pro- 
tein matter  can  be  utilised  exactly  in  the  same  way 
as  are  the  proteins  of  the  food.  Most  probably 
this  transformation  only  takes  place  in  the  case  of 
the  ruminants,  for  in  this  class1  the  activity  of  the 
bacteria  is  far  greater  than  with  animals  which 
have  only  a  simple  stomach  like  the  horse  or  pig. 


26    SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

This  brief  outline  of  the  changes  which  the  food 
undergoes  on  digestion  shows  that  the  process  is 
not  limited  to  one  organ.  The  proteins  are  digested 
not  only  in  the  stomach,  but  also  in  the  intestine, 
the  fats  are  acted  upon  by  the  gastric  juice  as  well 
as  by  the  secretions  from  the  pancreas,  the  gall 
bladder,  and  the  intestine,  and  the  solution  and 
digestion  of  starch  takes  place  in  the  several  portions 
of  the  alimentary  canal.  It  is  clear,  therefore, 
that  the  various  digestive  organs  assist  one  another 
materially,  and  the  work  of  one  can  be  partly  or 
wholly  taken  over  by  another. 

The  undigested  portions  of  the  food,  along  with 
the  remains  of  the  digestive  juices,  are  expelled  by 
the  animal  from  time  to  time.  The  period  during 
which  the  food  remains  in  the  body  depends  upon 
the  quantity  of  undigested  matter  and  the  size  of 
the  digestive  apparatus,  considerable  differences 
being  shown  by  the  various  domestic  animals. 

In  the  case  of  the  ox  the  alimentary  canal  is 
twenty  times  as  long  as  its  body,  in  sheep  and  goats 
it  is  twenty-seven  times,  in  pigs  fourteen  times, 
whilst  in  the  horse  and  donkey  it  is  only  eleven  to 
twelve  times  the  body -length.  Similar  differences 
are  also  to  be  noted  in  the  capacity  of  the  stomach 
and  intestines,  for  the  ox  can  hold  on  an  average 
365  kilograms  (1  kilo  =  2-2  lbs.),  the  horse,  211 
kilos,  and  the  pig,  23-31  kilos.  Thus  it  follows 
that  the  length  of  time  which  elapses  before  the 


DIGESTION   OF  THE   FOOD  27 

undigested  part  of  the  food  is  expelled  as  faeces 
varies  considerably.  With  cattle  and  sheep  it 
takes  on  an  average  three  to  four  days,  whilst  with 
pigs  thirty-six  hours  suffice. 

(3)  The  determination  of  the  digestibility  of  foods. 

To  learn  what  substances  in  a  food-stuff  are 
digested  and  taken  up  by  the  animal  body,  it  is 
usual  to  undertake  digestibility  experiments  with 
animals.  For  this  purpose  the  food  under  examina- 
tion is  first  carefully  analysed  and  a  weighed  por- 
tion given  to  the  animal,  generally  a  sheep  ;  after- 
wards the  dung  is  analysed  and  the  quantity  of 
undigested  material  which  it  contains  is  determined. 
As  it  is  some  time  before  the  residues  from  the 
previous  feeding  are  expelled  completely  from  the 
digestive  organs,  the  food  to  be  tested  must  be 
given  for  a  period  of  some  days  before  the  analysis  of 
the  faeces  begins.  Ruminants  and  horses  are  usually 
allowed  six  to  eight  days  and  pigs  four  to  six  days. 

Owing  to  the  differences  in  the  composition  of 
the  faeces,  even  when  the  supply  and  quality  of  the 
food  is  constant,  it  is  essential  to  collect  them  for 
at  least  eight  days  when  experimenting  with  oxen, 
and  at  least  six  days  for  pigs.  Each  day  an  aliquot 
part,  say,  one-tenth  or  one-fifth  of  the  well-mixed 
faeces,  is  taken,  at  once  dried,  and  then  after  being 
left  exposed  to  the  air  to  render  it  "  air  dry  "  it  is 
analysed  in   exactly   the  same  way   as   the  food. 


28    SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF  ANIMALS 

During  the  period  of  experiment  the  animals  are 
kept  in  specially  constructed  stalls  or  boxes,  and 
the  dung  collected  in  bags  lined  with  india-rubber 
and  attached  to  the  body  in  such  a  way  that  the 
solid  and  liquid  excreta  are  kept  separate.  The 
urine  passes  by  means  of  an  india-rubber  funnel  and 
tube  to  a  bottle  underneath  the  stall.  The  part  of 
the  food  which  has  been  digested  is  then  found  by 
deducting  the  ingredients  of  the  faeces  from  those 
of  the  original  food.  An  example  will  serve  to 
make  this  clear.  An  ox  was  fed  daily  with  9  kilos 
meadow  hay,  which  contained  81-22%  dry  matter, 
and  during  the  fifteen  days  which  the  experiment 
lasted  there  was  an  average  daily  yield  of  18-008  kilos 
dung  which  contained  17-43%  dry  matter. 

The  chemical  analysis  gave  the  following  per- 
centage composition  for  the  dry  matter  of  the  hay 
and  of  the  faeces — 


Crude 

Nitrogen-free 

Crude 

Crude 

Pure 

protein. 

extract. 

fat. 

fibre. 

ash. 

Meadow  hay- 

•         9-36 

52-05 

2-IO 

29-81 

6-68 

Dung   . 

.       IO-89 

46-28 

2-75 

29-01 

11-07 

The  amounts  digested  are  calculated  to  be — 

Dry          Organic  Crude  Nitrogen-free    Crude  Crude 

matter.        matter.  protein.        extract.           fat.  fibre, 

kilos.            kilos.  kilos.           kilos.             kilos.  kilos. 

Meadow  hay    7-303      6-815  0-684       3*8oi       0-153  2-177 

Dung    .         .     691         2-792  0-342       1-453       0-086  0-911 

Digested      .     4-164      4-023  0-342       2-348      0-067  1-266 

Amount  digested  per  100  parts — 

57-0        59-0        50-0        61 -8        43*8  58*2 


DIGESTION   OF  THE   FOOD  29 

These  last  figures  are  termed  the  "  Coefficients 
of  Digestibility." 

If  the  digestibility  of  the  protein  is  to  be  calcu- 
lated, then  the  non-protein  substances  (in  this  case 
I,35%==0'099  kilos)  have  to  be  deducted  from 
the  crude  protein  in  the  food  and  from  that  in  the 
dung.  This  would  be  in  the  above  experiment 
0-684  ~  0-099  =  °'5&5  kilos  for  the  protein  in  the 
food,  and  0-342-0-099  =  0-243  kilos  digested,  which 
equals  41-5%  digestible  protein. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
assumption  is  made  that  the  dung  consists  only  of 
undigested  food.  This  assumption,  however,  is 
not  quite  correct,  for  the  faeces  are  always  mixed 
with  small  quantities  of  substances  which  come 
from  the  digestive  organs  and  which  are  termed 
the  products  of  metabolism.  At  present  there  are 
no  methods  by  which  these  can  be  separated  from 
the  dung,  so  the  supposition  has  to  be  made  that 
all  which  is  found  in  the  dung  is  undigested 
food. 

If  digestion  experiments  have  to  be  made  with 
easily  digested  foods  such  as  roots,  cereal  grain 
meals,  oil  cakes,  etc.,  which  cannot  be  fed  alone  to 
ruminants  or  horses,  then  some  coarse  fodder — 
hay  or  straw — the  digestibility  of  which  has  pre- 
viously been  determined,  must  be  given  at  the  same 
time. 

From  these  two  experiments  all  the  data  neces- 


3o    SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

sary  for  calculating  the  digestibility  of  both  of  the 
foods  are  obtained. 

Investigations  of  this  kind  are  known  as  avail- 
ability determinations  and  are  very  important, 
because  they  are  the  only  means  by  which  a  know- 
ledge of  the  way  any  given  food  is  utilised  by  the 
animal  body  can  be  obtained.  All  the  efforts 
which  have  been  made  to  separate  the  digestible 
portion  of  a  food  from  the  indigestible  by  chemical 
methods  have  only  been  successful  in  the  case  of 
crude  protein.  This  has  been  done  by  artificial 
digestion  in  acid  gastric  juice,  and  has  served  to 
determine  the  total  quantity  of  crude  protein 
which  is  digestible.  No  method,  however,  has  yet 
been  devised  for  estimating  the  digestibility  of 
other  constituents  of  the  food — nitrogen-free  ex- 
tract, crude  fibre,  fat,  etc.  Attempts  have  also 
been  made  to  calculate  from  the  chemical  com- 
position what  proportion  of  a  food-stuff  would  be 
digested,  but  without  any  great  success.  In  the 
case  of  fodder  plants,  harvested  at  the  time  of 
flowering,  and  also  with  straw  of  various  kinds,  it  has 
been  found  that  the  total  amount  of  nitrogen-free 
extract  in  the  food  is  in  many  cases  equal  to  the 
crude  fibre  and  nitrogen-free  extract  substances 
which  have  been  digested.  With  young  plants 
this  does  not,  however,  hold  good,  for  in  that  case 
the  figure  obtained  for  the  undigested  portion  is 
too  low. 


DIGESTION   OF  THE   FOOD  31 

Results  of  availability  determinations  made  with 
domestic  animals  are  to  be  found  in  Table  II  of  the 
Appendix. 

(4)  The  extent  of  digestion  under  various 
conditions. 

[a)  The  influence  of  the  nature  of  the  animal 
upon  the  digestion  of  the  food. 

1.  Animals  of  different  species  do  not  always 
digest  the  same  quantity  of  any  given  food.  The 
greatest  digestive  power  is  undoubtedly  possessed 
by  the  ruminants,  oxen  being  somewhat  better 
than  sheep  as  regards  the  digestion  of  straw  or 
coarse  hay.  With  medium  quality  hay  these 
differences  are  less  marked,  and  with  other  foods 
the  digestive  power  of  the  ox  and  the  sheep  seems 
to  be  about  equal. 

Compared  to  the  ruminants  the  horse  has  a  some- 
what inferior  digestive  power,  as  is  seen  from 
Table  II  of  Appendix.  Investigations  carried  out 
on  this  point  have  shown  that  the  horse  digests 
almost  the  same  amount  of  crude  protein  from  the 
various  food-stuffs  as  do  the  ruminants.  It  is  in 
the  crude  fibre  and  crude  fat  that  the  greatest 
differences  are  seen,  and  in  a  less  measure  in  the 
nitrogen-free  extract.  In  the  case  of  such  a  diffi- 
cultly digestible  material  as  straw,  the  peculiarity 
of  the  horse  as  compared  to  a  ruminant  is  clearly 
shown,  for  the  former  utilises  only  about  half  of 


/ 


32    SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF  ANIMALS 

what  the  latter  does.  When  it  comes  to  the 
different  varieties  of  grass,  the  horse  is  found  to 
digest  only  20-25%  less  nitrogen-free  extract 
and  crude  fibre  than  does  the  sheep.  With  clover 
hay,  or  lucerne  hay  the  differences  are  again  less, 
being  at  most  10%,  whilst  the  digestibility  of  the 
grains  is  about  equal  for  each  class  of  animal, 
except  as  regards  the  crude  fat. 

The  pig  digests  coarse  fodders  considerably 
worse  than  does  the  horse.  Only  23  %  of  the  organic 
matter  of  wheat  chaff  is  digested  by  the  pig,  whereas 
the  ox  digests  36%.  These  differences,  which  are 
clearly  shown  in  Table  II  of  the  Appendix,  hold  also 
for  the  digestion  of  green  fodder.  With  oil  cakes 
and  grains  these  differences  are  less  pronounced, 
and  practically  vanish  with  such  foods  as  mangels 
and  potatoes.  There  are,  however,  many  by- 
products, such  as  dried  brewers'  grains  and  various 
other  refuse  materials  from  the  brewery  and  dis- 
tillery, which  the  pig  digests  very  badly. 

All  these  differences  are  mainly  due  to  the  kind 
of  digestive  apparatus  possessed  by  the  animal,  for 
in  function,  length,  and  capacity  there  are  consider- 
able variations  in  the  different  species.  The  action 
of  the  digestive  fluids  and  of  the  bacteria  upon  the 
food  is  also  subject  to  variations  and  alters  the 
conditions  very  materially. 

2.  Different  breeds  of  the  same  species  of  animal 
possess  an  equal  digestive  power.     Investigations 


DIGESTION   OF  THE   FOOD  33 

carried  out  upon  various  breeds  of  sheep  have 
proved  this.  The  experiment  was  performed  with 
five  different  rations,  and  the  coefficients  of 
digestibility  were  found  in  no  case  to  exceed 
a  maximum  difference  of  3-4%.  This  might 
quite  well  be  due  to  individual  peculiarities  of  the 
animal,  combined  with  unavoidable  experimental 
errors. 

3.  Between  individual  members  of  the  same  breed, 
small  variations,  usually  traceable  to  some  slight 
physical  weakness  on  the  part  of  the  animal,  may 
occasionally  be  noticed.  Generally  faulty  teeth, 
too  rapid  eating,  nervousness,  disturbances  of  the 
digestive  organs,  sometimes  also  intestinal  worms, 
are  the  causes.  Defects  of  this  kind  may  usually 
be  detected  by  the  condition  of  the  faeces,  for  in 
animals  with  weak  digestion  these  are  often  moister 
than  is  the  case  with  those  digesting  the  same  foods 
in  the  normal  way.  Where  the  differences  are  not 
due  to  serious  disease  of  the  stomach  or  intestine 
the  percentage  error  seldom  exceeds  3-4%  of  the 
ingested  organic  matter. 

4.  The  age  of  the  animal  does  not  influence  the 
digestibility  of  the  food,  but  until  the  first  stomach 
of  the  ruminant  is  fully  developed,  the  coarse, 
harder  particles  of  the  food  will  not  be  as  well 
digested  as  at  a  later  period.  Growing  sheep, 
which  were  given  the  same  food  from  the  age  of 
six  to  fourteen  months,  were  found  to  digest  what 

D 


34     SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

they  received  just  as  well  at  six  months  as  they 
did  eight  months  later. 

5.  Whether  the  animal  is  working  or  at  rest  seems 
to  have  little  effect  upon  the  digestion  of  the  food, 
even  where  the  work  is  hard.  The  rate,  however, 
at  which  such  work  is  done  does  have  an  influence, 
for  it  has  been  noticed  that  cab-horses  working  at 
a  quick  trot  did  not  digest  their  food  as  well  as 
they  did  when  at  rest ;  there  was  a  noticeable,  but 
not  large,  decrease  in  digestibility.  In  one  case, 
where  a  constant  ration  was  given,  it  was  found 
that  60%  of  the  organic  matter  was  digested  when 
the  horse  was  at  rest  in  the  stall,  62  %  when  he  was 
walking,  and  when  trotting  61%.  When  working 
at  a  walk  61  %  of  the  organic  matter  was  digested, 
when  working  at  a  trot  57%,  and  when  drawing  a 
cart  57%. 

Oxen  used  for  draught  purposes  must  get  enough 
time  (3-4  hours)  for  the  rumination  of  the  food, 
for  although  working  at  a  slow  rate  does  not  entirely 
stop  rumination,  it  is  not  properly  performed,  and 
so  more  or  less  serious  derangement  of  the  digestive 
processes  can  result. 

6.  Alterations  in  the  conditions  under  which 
the  animals  are  placed  are  also  without  influence 
upon  the  digestibility  of  the  food,  provided  violent 
excitement  and  disturbance  of  health  are  avoided. 
Changes  in  the  temperature,  lighting,  or  other 
conditions  of  the  stable,  have  no  appreciable  effect 


DIGESTION    OF    THE    FOOD  35 

upon  the  extent  of  digestion.  Nor  has  it  been 
shown  that  the  removal  of  the  coat  in  clipping  or 
shearing  has  any  influence  in  that  direction. 

(b)  Influence  of  the  quantity  and  mixing  of  the 
food  upon  digestion. 

1.  If  coarse  fodder  is  the  only  food-stuff  given, 
then  smaller  or  larger  quantities  do  not  affect 
digestion,  as  has  often  been  shown.  To  quote  one 
example  :  61-62  %  of  the  organic  matter  of  lucerne 
hay  was  digested  by  sheep  whether  the  daily  ration 
was  o-8,  i-o,  or  1-2  kilos  (1  kilo=2-2  lbs.). 

2.  Varyingly  large  rations,  in  which  the  ratio  be- 
tween coarse  and  concentrated  foods  is  kept  constant, 
seem  to  be  digested  to  a  less  degree  the  larger  the 
daily  ration  is.  Four  successive  digestibility  trials 
were  made  with  a  mixture  of  meadow  hay,  molasses 
feed,  rye  bran,  and  cotton-seed  cake.  When  the 
dry  matter  of  the  daily  ration  was  10-84  kilos,  76% 
of  the  organic  matter  was  digested  ;  when  it  was 
13-01  kilos,  747%;  when  15-18  kilos,  72-8%;  and 
again,  when  the  dry  matter  was  10-84  kilos,  the 
digestibility  coefficient  rose  to  75*8%.  The  diminu- 
tion of  food  digested  in  the  case  of  the  larger  ration 
was  equally  evident  in  the  various  constituents, 
except  the  crude  fat. 

Although  the  depression  of  digestibility  is  not  as 
a  rule  large,  still,  in  the  total  daily  rations,  it  may 
mean  considerable  quantities.     In  the  experiments 


36     SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

just  quoted  about  i  lb.  less  organic  matter  was 
digested  when  the  largest  ration  was  given.  It  is 
easy  to  see  that  by  the  consumption  of  large  quanti- 
ties of  food  the  passage  through  the  alimentary 
canal  is  more  rapid,  although  this  organ  possesses 
a  certain  extensibility,  and  so  digestion  may  not  be 
perfect.  When  large  quantities  of  easily  digestible 
food  are  consumed  it  is  possible  that  the  intestine 
is  not  able  to  cope  with  it,  and  so  some  of  the 
nutrients  escape  unabsorbed.  Over-feeding  of  ani- 
mals for  these  and  other  reasons  is  to  be  avoided. 

3.  The  one-sided  addition  of  digestible  carbo- 
hydrates to  a  food  causes,  under  certain  conditions, 
a  greater  or  less  depression  of  digestibility.  This 
fact  has  been  constated  by  numerous  experiments 
on  ruminants  and  pigs.  One  of  these,  with  an  ox, 
may  be  quoted.  It  was  found  that  after  the  addi- 
tion of  1-66  kilos  of  dry  starch  to  a  daily  ration 
of  9  kilos  meadow  hay,  the  digestion  of  the  crude 
protein  decreased  by  63  grams  (28  grams =1  oz.), 
the  nitrogen-free  extract  by  in  grams,  and  the 
crude  fibre  by  133  grams.  When  the  quantity  of 
added  starch  was  raised  to  2-87  kilos,  then  a  decrease 
of  120  grams  crude  protein,  252  grams  nitrogen-free 
extract,  and  167  grams  crude  fibre  was  found  in  the 
amounts  digested.  This  depression  of  digestibility, 
due  to  the  starch,  was  also  observed  when  other 
carbohydrates,  such  as  sugar  or  cellulose,  were 
added  to  the  hay.     Similarly,  when  foods  rich  in 


DIGESTION    OF   THE    FOOD  37 

carbohydrates — potatoes,  mangels,  etc. — are  added 
to  a  ration  poor  in  crude  protein,  the  digestibility 
of  the  various  components  of  the  food  is  diminished. 
As  regards  the  explanation  of  this  phenomenon, 
it  is  known  that  after  the  addition  of  such  materials 
as  have  been  mentioned,  the  faeces  of  the  animal 
are  considerably  richer  in  nitrogenous  substances. 
These  do  not  come  from  the  food,  but  from  the 
digestive  juices  and  from  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  intestines.  On  analysing  such  faeces  more 
crude  protein  is  found  than  when  the  basal  ration  is 
given  without  any  additions.  As  the  calculation 
of  the  quantity  of  digested  crude  protein  is  made 
by  subtracting  that  found  in  the  dung  from  that 
present  in  the  food,  the  difference  in  crude  protein 
is  less  where  additions  of  the  kind  mentioned  have 
been  made.  The  depression  of  the  digestibility  of 
crude  protein  by  the  addition  of  starch,  etc.,  would 
accordingly  only  be  an  apparent  one,  and  would 
be  explained  by  the  presence  of  waste  nitrogenous 
products  of  metabolism  in  the  faeces.  Further,  it 
may  be  supposed  that  the  bacteria,  which  are 
present  in  large  quantities  in  partly  digested  food, 
nourish  themselves  on  the  easily  digestible  sub- 
stances, such  as  starch  or  sugar,  when  these  are 
added,  whilst  the  constituents  of  the  food  are  acted 
upon  in  a  less  degree.  The  addition  of  starch  or 
sugar  to  hay  would  protect  the  latter  from  disso- 
lution and  decomposition  by  bacteria.     In  conse- 


38     SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

quence  of  this,  more  of  the  nutrients  of  the  hay 
would  pass  into  the  faeces,  that  is,  less  would  be 
digested  than  when  hay  alone  was  fed.  Be  that  as 
it  may,  the  fact  remains  that  the  digestibility  of  a 
food  poor  in  protein  is  diminished  when  large 
quantities  of  easily  digestible  nitrogen-free  sub- 
stances of  the  kind  already  mentioned  are  mixed 
with  it. 

4.  The  addition  of  fat  or  oil  does  not  alter  the 
digestibility  of  a  food,  provided  the  added  material 
is  in  a  finely  divided  form,  and  moderate  quantities 
(not  more  than  1  lb.  per  1000  lbs.  body  weight)  only 
are  given.  If,  however,  large  quantities  of  oil  or 
melted  fat  are  poured  over  the  food,  its  digestibility 
is  diminished.  This  is  due  to  the  difficulty  with 
which  the  digestive  juices  penetrate  the  particles  of 
food  which  are  coated  with  oil.  In  the  natural 
food-stuffs  the  oils  and  fats  are  always  present  in 
the  form  of  microscopically  small  globules. 

5.  The  increase  of  crude  protein  in  a  food  causes 
not  only  no  depression  of  digestibility  of  the  other 
components,  but,  on  the  contrary,  minimises  the 
depressing  effect  of  large  quantities  of  nitrogen- 
free  substances.  If,  for  example,  ruminants  are 
being  fed  with  a  mixture  of  hay  or  straw  and  a  lot 
of  potatoes,  then,  as  has  been  shown  (p.  36),  the 
nitrogen-free  substances  are  not  completely  digested, 
in  fact,  part  of  the  easily  digestible  starch  passes 
into   the   faeces.     When  a  food  rich  in  protein — 


DIGESTION    OF   THE    FOOD  39 

say,  cotton-seed  cake  meal — is  added  to  the  ration, 
no  traces  of  starch  are  found  in  the  dung,  for  diges- 
tion has  been  complete.  The  addition  of  non- 
protein nitrogenous  substances  (amides  and  amino 
acids,  etc.)  acts  similarly  to  the  protein,  and  raises 
the  digestibility  when  it  is  depressed  by  large  doses 
of  carbohydrates.  After  thorough  investigation  of 
this  phenomenon  it  has  been  proved  that  a  complete 
digestion  of  all  constituents  of  the  food  is  assured 
if  the  total  ration  contains  8-10  parts  of  digestible 
nitrogen-free  substance  to  each  part  of  crude  pro- 
tein. This  ratio  applies  particularly  to  ruminants ; 
for  pigs  less  protein  is  necessary,  and  may  be 
placed  at  1  part  to  12  parts  nitrogen-free  extract. 
If  the  proportion  of  carbohydrates  is  in  excess  of 
these  figures,  then  some  of  the  otherwise  digestible 
material  passes  into  the  faeces. 

6.  The  only  other  substances  whose  action  upon 
the  digestibility  has  been  tested  are  lactic  acid, 
calcium  carbonate,  and  common  salt.  With  all 
these,  however,  no  influence,  favourable  or  un- 
favourable, has  been  noticed.  With  regard  to  lactic 
acid,  which  is  present  in  considerable  quantities 
(up  to  3%)  in  acid  food-stuffs,  such  as  silage,  it  is 
known  that  continued  feeding  of  large  quantities 
of  this  material  injures  the  teeth,  and  so  mastica- 
tion becomes  imperfect.  Disturbances  of  the  diges- 
tive organs  are  also  liable  to  arise,  and  so  the  food 
is  not  properly  utilised,  which  means  loss.     Without 


40     SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF    ANIMALS 

doubt  salt  increases  the  secretion  of  the  digestive 
juices,  but  in  the  form  in  which  it  is  usually  given 
it  has  not  got  the  power  of  rendering  the  food  more 
available.  Very  large  quantities  of  salt  act  as  a 
purgative,  and  so  diminish  the  digestibility. 

All  owners  of  cattle  have  been  told  of  the  wonder- 
ful power  which  some  particular  condiment  has  in 
increasing  the  digestibility  and  value  of  the  food. 
Impartial  experiments  which  have  been  made  with 
these  "  condiments  "  have  shown  that  they  do  not 
in  any  way  improve  the  effect  of  the  food.  The 
animal  organism  is  much  too  perfect  to  need  assist- 
ance in  such  a  way. 


CHAPTER    III 

THE   UTILISATION   OF   DIGESTED    NUTRIENTS 
IN   THE   ANIMAL   BODY 

(i)  General  considerations. 

THE  body  temperature  of  a  living,  warm- 
blooded animal  lies  between  37-400  C.  (99- 
I04°F.),  and  so,  as  a  rule,  is  higher  than  the 
temperature  of  the  surrounding  atmosphere.  On 
this  account  animals  are  continually  losing  heat, 
and  must  have  some  source  from  which  the  loss 
can  be  made  good. 

The  movements  which  take  place  during  respira- 
tion, the  work  performed  by  the  heart,  the  changes 
in  shape  of  the  digestive  organs,  the  movements  of 
the  voluntary  and  involuntary  muscles,  etc.,  all 
use  up  energy,  which  must  be  replaced  if  life  is  to 
continue.  It  is  impossible  to  prevent  the  loss  of 
animal  heat,  as  will  be  seen  later  (Chap.  IV),  even 
if  the  surrounding  temperature  is  raised.  The 
same  holds  good,  also,  in  the  case  of  dissipation  of 
energy.  Energy  can  be  brought  into  a  machine  in 
various  ways,  but  there  is  only  one  way  of  bringing 

41 


42     SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

it  into  the  animal  body,  and  that  is  in  the  food. 
It  is,  in  fact,  an  essential  condition  of  life  that  heat 
and  energy  should  be  generated  in  the  body  itself, 
and  it  is  in  the  living  cells  of  the  organism  that 
they  are  produced  from  the  digested  nutrients 
which  are  brought  in  the  blood  supply  to  all  parts 
of  the  body,  and  there  taken  up  by  the  cells. 
Heat  and  energy,  then,  are  only  generated  in  the 
animal  body  by  the  decomposition  and  combustion 
of  organic  materials  which  the  cells  have  received 
from  the  blood.  The  combustion  is  preceded  as  a 
rule  by  a  splitting  up  of  the  compounds,  probably 
under  the  influence  of  enzymes.  Simpler  substances 
are  obtained  in  this  way,  and  they  are  oxidised  by 
means  of  the  oxygen  in  the  blood.  The  fine  blood- 
vessels of  the  lungs  take  up  the  oxygen,  which  is 
drawn  in  with  each  breath  of  air,  and  transport  it 
in  the  blood  through  the  whole  body. 

Whenever  energy  or  heat  are  to  be  generated  this 
oxygen  unites  with  the  substances  which  have  been 
prepared  for  the  combination  by  a  preliminary 
cleavage.  The  nitrogen-free  substances — such  as 
carbohydrates,  fats,  and  organic  acids — yield  there- 
by carbon  dioxide  and  water,  which  are  the  same 
products  as  those  formed  when  ordinary  combustion 
takes  place  outside  the  body. 

In  a  similar  manner  to  that  by  which  oxygen  is 
brought  to  the  cells,  but  in  the  opposite  sense,  the 
carbon  dioxide  is  dissolved  in  the  blood,  reaches 


UTILISATION    OF    NUTRIENTS  43 

the  lungs,  and  is  there  given  out  to  the  air,  only  a 
small  proportion  being  excreted  by  the  skin  and 
intestine.  The  proteins  and  amides  also  give 
carbon  dioxide  and  water  on  decomposition,  as 
well  as  nitrogenous  waste  products,  of  which  urea  is 
the  chief.  The  latter,  together  with  soluble  salts 
and  some  of  the  water,  are  brought  in  the  blood  to 
the  kidneys,  and  from  there  pass  in  the  form  of 
urine  to  the  bladder.  There  are  other  ways,  too,  in 
which  water,  whether  from  the  food,  drink,  or  the 
combustion  of  organic  substances  in  the  cells,  leaves 
the  body.  Some  is  exhaled  as  gas  from  the  lungs 
and  skin,  whilst  the  rest  is  got  rid  of  in  fluid  form  in 
the  urine  or  faeces. 

The  materials  taken  up  by  the  blood  from  the 
alimentary  canal  are  not  always  split  up  and 
oxidised,  but  when  the  food  supply  is  liberal 
they  are  changed  into  body  tissue  or  milk. 
Hereby  there  arise  as  a  rule  many  waste  pro- 
ducts, which  are  capable  of  further  oxidation  with 
the  formation  of  the  final  products  already  men- 
tioned. 

All  these  changes,  which  take  place  from  the 
entrance  of  the  digested  compounds  of  the  food 
into  the  blood  up  to  the  excretion  of  the  final  pro- 
ducts, are  grouped  under  the  term  "  metabolism." 
Every  constituent  of  the  food  which  can  yield  heat 
or  energy,  or  can  serve  for  the  production  of  body 
tissue,  is  called  a  nutrient. 


44     SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

(2)  Methods  of  investigation. 

To  ascertain  whether  any  given  susbtance  is  a 
nutrient  in  the  above  sense  a  careful  examination 
of  the  quantity  and  nature  of  the  food  and  faeces 
has  to  be  made.  The  same  method  is  employed  for 
finding  out  what  quantity  of  the  nutrient  material 
is  necessary  for  an  animal  under  certain  condi- 
tions, and,  further,  under  what  circumstances  a 
gain  or  loss  of  body  tissue  takes  place. 

1.  The  increase  of  body  tissue,  or  flesh,  can  be 
reckoned  from  the  amount  of  nitrogen  which  is 
retained  in  the  animal  body  when  a  known  ration 
is  fed.  It  is  true  that  the  growth  of  hair,  horns, 
hoofs,  etc.,  also  claims  a  little  nitrogen,  but  this 
amount  is  so  small  as  to  be  negligible,  except  in  the 
case  of  sheep.  The  computation  of  the  quantity 
of  nitrogen  which  an  animal  retains  in  its  body  is 
relatively  simple,  owing,  in  the  first  instance,  to 
animals  not  having  the  power  to  make  use  of  the 
nitrogen  of  the  atmosphere.  The  air  coming  from 
the  lungs  contains  the  same  amount  of  nitrogen 
that  it  did  when  taken  in.  Secondly,  the  nitro- 
genous components  of  the  food  do  not  split  off  free 
nitrogen,  for  all  the  nitrogen  which  is  not  stored 
in  the  body  passes  into  the  urine  or  fseces  in 
the  form  of  organic  compounds.  The  amount 
of  nitrogenous  matter  which  leaves  the  body 
through   the  skin  in   the  form  of  perspiration   is 


UTILISATION    OF    NUTRIENTS  45 

too  small  to  be  considered.  It  suffices,  then,  in 
an  estimation  of  the  increase  of  flesh  to  determine 
how  much  nitrogen  is  taken  into  the  body  in  the 
food,  and  how  much  leaves  it  in  the  urine  and 
faeces.  If,  then,  the  output  of  nitrogen  is  sub- 
tracted from  the  income,  it  is  easy  to  calculate  the 
amount  of  flesh  that  has  been  stored,  for  dry  flesh, 
free  from  fat  and  mineral  matter,  contains  16-67% 
of  nitrogen.  Fresh  lean  meat  contains,  further, 
77%  of  water.  In  a  certain  sense,  then,  the  additions 
of  nitrogen  and  of  flesh  are  the  same. 

Although  the  food  of  an  animal  may  contain 
more  or  less  nitrogen  or  even  none  at  all,  it  is  always 
found  that  a  certain  quantity  is  present  in  the  urine. 
This  comes  from  the  decomposition  of  the  constitu- 
ents of  the  food  or  of  the  body  tissue,  and  so  the 
nitrogen  in  the  urine  is  a  measure  of  the  nitrogen 
metabolism  in  the  body.  In  investigations  relative 
to  vital  changes  which  take  place  in  the  organism, 
particularly  in  relation  to  its  food  supply,  the 
quantity  of  nitrogen  in  the  urine  plays  a  very  im- 
portant part.  Experiments  on  the  formation  of 
body  tissue  are  in  general  carried  out  in  the  same 
way  as  those  on  the  digestibility  of  food  (p.  27), 
only  here,  in  addition  to  the  faeces,  the  urine  must 
be  collected  without  loss  for  a  certain  length  of 
time.  The  minimum  time  of  collection  should  be 
eight  to  ten  days,  and  careful  analyses  of  the  urine 
are  necessary.     During  the  drying  of  faeces  small 


46     SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

quantities  of  nitrogen-containing  substances  vola- 
tilise, so  it  is  generally  preferable  to  analyse  the 
fresh  dung.  The  previous  feeding  of  the  animal 
exercises  considerable  influence  on  the  excretion 
of  urine,  so  care  must  be  taken  that  the  nitrogen 
in  the  urine  is  constant  before  the  real  experiment 
begins. 

2.  A  determination  of  the  increase  of  fat  in  an 
animal  body  is  only  possible  when,  in  addition  to 
the  nitrogen,  all  the  carbon  that  goes  into  and 
leaves  the  body  is  known.  As  the  animal  gives 
out  large  quantities  of  carbon-containing  sub- 
stances (carbon  dioxide  and  marsh  gas  principally) 
from  the  lungs,  skin  and  rectum,  it  is  essential  to 
determine  these  gaseous  products  in  addition  to 
the  solids.  The  analysis  of  the  gases  usually 
takes  place  in  the  Pettenkofer  respiration  chamber 
which  will  be  described  later.  An  example  will 
show  what  can  be  learnt  from  such  investigations. 
An  ox  was  given  the  following  amounts  of  nitrogen 
and  carbon  in  the  food  and  water  daily  :  186-47 
gr.  nitrogen  and  5564-5  gr.  carbon  ;  excreted  in 
urine,  dung,  and  breath  179-24  gr.  nitrogen  and 
4892-0  gr.  carbon ;  remaining  in  body  7-23  gr. 
nitrogen  and  672-5  gr.  carbon. 

Pure  dry  flesh  contains  16-67%  nitrogen  and 
52-54%  carbon,  so  the  addition  of  7-23  gr.  nitrogen 
equals  43-4  gr.  of  dry  flesh  containing  22-8  gr.  of 
carbon.     For   the   increase   of    fat    there  remain, 


UTILISATION    OF    NUTRIENTS  47 

therefore,  672-5  -  22-8  =  649-7  gr-  carbon  over. 
With  the  exception  of  fat  the  other  nitrogen-free 
carbon  compounds  in  the  body  are  only  formed  in 
very  small  quantities,  so  it  is  permissible  to  reckon 
all  the  added  carbon — 649-7  gr.  as  fat.  It  is  known 
that  100  parts  beef  suet  contain  76-5%  carbon,  so 
that  649-7  gr.  of  carbon  =  849-3  gr.  (nearly  2  lbs.) 
of  fat  added  each  day. 

Investigations  of  this  kind  are  carried  out  exactly 
as  was  described  in  the  case  of  increase  of  flesh,  but 
the  animal  must  become  used  not  only  to  having 
no  litter,  but  also  to  the  respiration  chamber,  before 
the  experiment  begins.  Such  an  experiment  takes 
at  least  twelve  to  fourteen  days,  during  which  time 
the  faeces  and  urine  must  be  collected  daily  without 
loss.  The  products  of  respiration  are  estimated 
three  or  four  times  for  periods  of  twenty-four  hours 
exactly.  In  such  investigation  the  digestibility 
of  the  food  is  naturally  determined  in  addition  to 
the  nitrogen  and  carbon  metabolism. 

As  has  already  been  stated,  the  digested  nutrients 
not  only  supply  material  for  the  formation  of 
flesh,  fat,  wool,  milk,  etc.,  but  they  also  serve  as 
carriers  of  heat  and  energy,  both  of  which  are  re- 
quired by  the  body.  Investigations  on  the  energy 
relations  of  the  body  are  most  important,  and  it 
will  be  well  to  briefly  note  the  methods  by  which 
the  energy  metabolism  of  an  animal  is  ascertained. 


48     SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

(3)  The  energy  metabolism. 

The  simplest  measure  of  the  amount  of  energy 
that  can  be  obtained  from  any  substance  is  the 
heat  which  is  produced  when  it  undergoes  com- 
plete combustion.  When,  for  instance,  starch  is 
burnt  in  a  bomb  calorimeter  filled  with  compressed 
oxygen,  a  certain  amount  of  heat  is  generated. 
If  the  bomb  is  immersed  in  a  known  quantity  of 
water  the  rise  in  temperature  of  the  water  can 
be  measured  by  a  very  sensitive  thermometer,  and 
from  the  observed  increase  of  temperature  of  the 
water,  the  amount  of  heat  present  in  the  starch 
can  be  calculated. 

The  unit  of  energy,  expressed  as  heat,  is  the  large 
calorie  (CaL),  which  is  the  amount  of  heat  sufficient 
to  raise  1  kilogram  of  water  i°  C.  (or  1  lb.  of  water 
40  F.).  Sometimes  the  small  calorie  (CaL)  is  em- 
ployed, which  is  only  a  thousandth  part  of  the 
large  calorie.  When  it  is  stated  that  the  heat  value 
of  1  gram  of  starch  (nth  of  an  oz.)  is  4-1825  CaL,  it 
is  understood  that  this  is  a  direct  measure  of  the 
energy  in  the  starch.  In  the  same  way,  when  it  is 
said  that  an  ox  weighing  600  kilograms  (about 
n|  cwt.)  requires  a  daily  supply  of  12,780  CaL,  it  is 
clear  what  is  meant.  It  has  already  been  seen  that 
many  digestible  components  of  the  food  yield 
waste  products  which,  like  marsh  gas  and  urea, 
are  combustible  and  so  contain  heat,  or  energy. 


UTILISATION    OF    NUTRIENTS  49 

When  the  real  available  energy  or  availability  of 
the  digested  material  is  to  be  given,  then  the  heat 
value  of  the  waste  products  must  be  deducted  from 
the  total  heat  value  contained  in  the  digested 
material.  Thus  from  100  grams  of  starch  it  has 
been  found  by  experiment  on  the  ox  that  3-17  grams 
of  marsh  gas  are  formed,  1  gram  of  which  has  the 
high  heat  value  of  13,344  cal-  When  this  is  calcu- 
lated on  1  gram  of  starch  it  is  seen  that  there  is  a 
loss  of  422  cal.,  so  that  the  net  heat  value  is  4183 
cal.  -  422  cal.  =  3761  cal.  or  3761  Cal.  instead  of 
4-183  Cal.  The  available  energy  of  1  gram  of 
starch  is  then  only  89-90%. 

The  investigation  of  the  energy  metabolism  can 
be  made  in  two  ways,  either  direct  or  indirect.  In 
the  first  case  the  heat  which  is  given  off  from  the 
animal  is  measured  directly.  For  this  purpose 
special  forms  of  apparatus — the  so-called  respira- 
tion calorimeters  are  necessary.  The  commonest 
form  is  built  upon  the  principle  of  an  ordinary  air 
thermometer,  the  bulb  of  which  encloses  the  animal. 
These  calorimeters  usually  serve  at  the  same  time 
as  a  respiration  chamber.  In  the  second  case 
where  the  determination  is  an  indirect  one  all  the 
income  and  outgo  of  the  animal  in  food,  faeces, 
urine,  and  the  products  of  respiration  must  be 
determined,  as  was  done  in  the  experiments  on 
storage  of  flesh  and  fat  (pp.  44-47).  In  addition, 
the  heat  values  of  all  materials  eaten  or  excreted 


50     SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

must  be  accurately  estimated  by  direct  experiments. 
When  this  has  been  done  the  energy  content  of  the 
food  and  of  the  excretory  products  is  calculated, 
and  it  is  found  what  amount  of  energy  expressed  in 
heat  units  has  been  at  the  disposal  of  the  animal. 
Further,  from  the  increase  in  flesh  and  fat  the 
energy  which  has  remained  in  the  body  can  be 
calculated.  In  this  way  all  the  data  essential  for  a 
clear  insight  into  the  metabolism  of  material  and 
of  energy  are  obtained.  The  following  experiment 
on  a  well-fed  ox  will  serve  as  an  example  of  an 
energy-metabolism  investigation — 

Income  of   energy  in  food  .         .         .     52929  Cal. 
Expenditure    „      „      faeces     15916  Cal. 
,,  ,,      ,,      urine       1686     „ 

„      „  marsh  gas  3383     „ 


20985     „ 

Total  amount  of  available  energy       .  31944  Cal. 

For  maintenance  of  the  animal,  deter- 
mined from  other  experiments .         .  17320     „ 

Amount  of  available  energy  left  for 

production 14624      „ 

Stored  in  flesh  246  Cal.,  in  fat  8069  Cal.       8315      „ 

Percentage  storage  of  available  energy  56-9% 


CHAPTER   IV 

METABOLISM 

(i)  Fasting  metabolism. 

ALTHOUGH  an  animal  is  entirely  deprived 
JTx.  of  food,  it  continues  to  live  for  some  time. 
During  the  period  of  starvation  most  of  the  organs 
of  the  body,  as  well  as  the  fatty  tissue,  decrease  in 
weight.  In  the  excreta — faeces,  urine,  and  pro- 
ducts of  respiration — there  are,  nevertheless,  the 
same  substances  found  as  when  food  was  being 
taken. 

An  examination  of  the  excreta  shows  that  by 
complete  withdrawal  of  food  the  body  loses  pro- 
tein (flesh)  as  well  as  nitrogen-free  substances 
(principally  fat),  and  mineral  compounds.  For 
example,  a  rabbit  which  weighed  2341  gr.  (about 
5  lbs.)  was  found,  after  starving  for  eighteen  days,  to 
weigh  only  1388  gr.,  a  loss  of  953,  which  is  407% 
of  the  original  body  weight.  From  the  excreta  of 
this  animal  it  was  calculated  that  the  following 
quantities  of  body  protein  and  body  fat  had  been 
destroyed — 

51 


52     SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

1-2  days  of  hunger  975  gr.  protein  and —  gr.  fat. 
3-8     „       „       ,,       670        „         „        io-o     „ 
9-*5  „      »      »       5*92         „        „  7*4     » 

16-18  „       „      „     13-27         „        „         i-o     „ 

It  is  the  need  of  heat  and  energy  which  causes 
the  continued  decomposition  of  tissues  and  which 
ceases  only  with  the  death  of  the  animal.  All 
the  energy  which  is  utilised  for  any  form  of  work, 
be  it  in  a  machine  or  in  the  animal  body,  is  finally 
converted  into  heat.  The  total  heat,  then,  that  an 
animal  gives  off  when  starving  can  be  regarded  as 
a  reliable  measure  of  the  energy  required  for  the 
maintenance  of  life. 

The  loss  of  heat  which  a  body  suffers  in  surround- 
ings of  a  lower  temperature  depends  upon  the  surface 
of  the  warm  body  and  not  upon  the  weight.  If  two 
pieces  of  metal  of  equal  weight  are  taken,  and  one  of 
them  made  into  a  ball  and  the  other  beaten  into  a 
thin  sheet,  then  if  both  are  heated  to  ioo°  C.  and 
allowed  to  cool  the  sheet  becomes  cold  more  quickly 
than  the  ball ;  the  larger  surface  radiates  more  heat 
than  the  smaller.  This  law  has  often  been  shown  to 
hold  good  also  for  the  living  animal.  An  investiga- 
tion on  the  energy  metabolism  of  seven  starving  dogs 
of  different  weights  gave  the  following  results — 

Body  weight  in  kilograms  :  31-2,  24-0,  19-8,  18-2, 
9-6,  6-5,  3-2. 

Body  surface  in  sq.  centimetres :  10,750,  8805, 
7500,  7662,  5286,  3724,  2423. 


FASTING   METABOLISM  53 

Loss  of  heat — 

Per  1  kg.  body  weight :  36-6,  40-9,  45-9,  46-2,  65-2, 
66-i,  88-i. 

Per  1  sq.  cm.  body  surface  :  1036,  11 12,  1207, 
1097,  1183,  1153,  1212. 

Reckoned  upon  1  kilo  body  weight  the  smaller 
animals  used  up  far  more  heat  than  the  large  ones, 
whereas  when  the  calculation  is  made  upon  the  loss 
of  heat  from  an  equal  body  surface  only  small 
differences  are  seen.  It  is  thus  possible  to  say  that 
the  total  exchange  of  energy,  and  with  it  naturally 
the  consumption  of  material,  depend  upon  the 
surface  of  the  body. 

There  is  another  factor  that  influences  these  re- 
lations, and  that  is  the  surrounding  temperature.  In 
an  experiment  two  dogs,  one  of  which  (a)  had  long 
hair  and  the  other  (b)  was  clipped,  were  kept  at 
different  temperatures  with  the  following  results, 
the  loss  of  heat  at  300  being  taken  as  100,  and  the 
other  temperatures  calculated  on  that  basis — 


(A) 

(B) 

t  a  temperature  of  300  C. 

100 

100 

„      20°  C. 

135 

157 

..     io°  C. 

170 

214 

„      o°C. 

205 

271 

It  is  thus  seen  that  by  warming  the  surrounding 
atmosphere  a  considerable  diminution  in  loss  of 
heat  is  obtained,  for  compared  with  o°  C.  the 
saving  was — 


54     SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 


(A) 

(B) 

At  io°  C.     26% 

36% 

„    200  C.    41% 

53% 

„    30s  C.    51% 

63% 

The  loss  of  heat,  or  what  is  the  same,  the  con- 
sumption of  tissue  which  takes  place  at  o°  can  be 
diminished  by  50-60%  when  the  surrounding 
temperature  is  raised  to  300  C.  In  this  respect  the 
results  of  the  experiment  given  above  teach  a  great 
deal.  They  show  that  the  using  up  of  tissue  in  a 
fasting  animal  is  in  close  and  regular  relation  to 
changes  of  the  surrounding  temperatures.  Other 
investigations  confirm  this  and  differences  of  i°  C. 
have  in  fact  been  clearly  reflected  in  the  loss  of  heat. 
Animals  cannot,  however,  stand  higher  tempera- 
tures, such  as  30-350  C,  for  the  body  becomes  over- 
heated and  a  condition  of  fever  sets  in. 

If  a  comparison  is  made  between  the  behaviour 
of  the  two  dogs  in  the  above  experiment,  it  is  seen 
that  the  clipped  dog  (b)  lost  considerably  more 
heat  at  the  lower  temperatures,  and  that  in  its  case 
the  raising  of  the  temperature  prevented  more  loss 
of  heat  than  with  the  long-coated  dog  (a).  The 
importance  of  a  covering  of  hair  on  animals  is 
clearly  shown  in  this  way. 

In  the  production  of  heat  in  the  fasting  animal 
it  has  been  seen  that  both  the  body  protein  and  the 
body  fat  take  part.     The  fatter  the  animal  is  the 


FASTING   METABOLISM  55 

greater  the  part  played  by  the  fat  in  the  production 
of  heat. 

It  has  been  found  with  a  dog  experimented  upon 
in  various  stages  of  fatness  that  when  starving  the 
production  of  heat  was  divided  between  the  protein 
and  the  fat  in  the  following  proportions — 
Condition  of  Heat  furnished  by 

the  animal.  flesh  [protein) .  fat. 

Fat  .  .  .  6-i%  .  .  93-9% 
Lean  .  .  .  14-4%  .  .  85-6% 
Very  lean  .         .     167%     .         .     83-3% 

During  the  period  of  starvation  the  fat  disappears 
by  degrees,  and  then  the  body  proteins  are  called 
upon  to  furnish  heat.  However  fat  though  the 
animal  may  be,  the  protein  metabolism  never  com- 
pletely ceases,  for  protein  plays  a  part  which  cannot 
be  performed  by  fat. 

Observations  on  fasting  animals  give  a  clearer 
insight  into  the  metabolism  of  the  body  than  can 
be  the  case  where  food  is  given,  and  therefore  they 
have  found  a  place  here. 

(2)  Insufficient  feeding. 

In  the  preceding  section  it  has  been  shown  that  a 
starving  animal  lives  upon  the  materials  of  its  body. 
The  amount  of  heat  which  it  gives  out  serves  as  an 
exact  measure  of  the  requirements  of  the  body  in 
material  and  energy.     If  such  an  animal  is  given 


56     SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

food,  which  brings  heat  and  energy,  it  is  clear  that 
body  tissue  equal  in  quantity  to  the  heat  which  is 
liberated  from  the  food  in  the  body  will  be  saved. 
Various  investigations  with  carnivorous  animals 
and  rabbits  have  confirmed  this. 

In  order  to  prevent  a  loss  of  ioo  gr.  of  body  fat  it 
is  necessary,  according  to  calculations  based  upon 
the  heat  values  (p.  48),  to  give  235  gr.  cane  sugar. 
An  experiment  on  a  fasting  dog  which  received  only 
cane  sugar  showed  that  234  gr.  of  that  substance 
can  take  the  place  of  100  gr.  of  body  fat.  Other 
experiments  with  lean  or  extracted  flesh,  starch, 
grape  sugar,  etc.,  lead  to  the  same  conclusion.  This 
proves  accordingly  that  the  several  nutrients  can 
mutually  replace  one  another  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  heat  which  is  set  free  when  they  de- 
compose in  the  body.  This  law,  however,  only 
holds  good  where  the  total  quantity  of  food  con- 
sumed does  not  yield  more  heat  than  the  animal 
gives  off  during  starvation,  that  is,  it  applies  only 
to  a  maintenance  ration.  In  the  fasting  animal 
part  of  the  energy  arising  from  the  decomposition 
of  the  nutrients  does  not  immediately  take  the  form 
of  heat,  but  is  first  utilised  for  work  and  afterwards 
manifests  itself  as  heat.  With  carnivorous  animals  it 
has  been  possible  to  determine  that  portion  of  the 
energy  of  the  food  which  serves  for  work,  and  it  was 
thereby  shown  that  only  a  portion  of  this — never 
the   whole — undergoes    conversion    in    the    animal 


METABOLISM    AND    FOOD  57 

body.  From  protein  this  portion  was  71-3%,  from 
fat  87-3%,  and  from  cane  sugar  94%,  the  remain- 
ders, 187%,  127%,  and  6%  respectively,  appear 
under  all  circumstances  in  the  form  of  heat,  and 
cannot  be  used  for  work  by  the  animal  or  its  organs. 
Thus  there  are  two  forms  of  energy  to  be  considered, 
the  one  which  takes  the  form  of  work  and  is  called 
"  dynamic  "  energy,  and  the  other  which  takes  the 
form  of  heat  and  is  known  as  "  thermic  "  energy. 

The  portion  of  dynamic  energy  which  comes  to 
herbivorous  animals  from  their  food  is  much  less 
than  the  amounts  given  above  for  carnivorous 
animals  receiving  pure  nutrients.  A  considerable 
proportion  of  the  food  of  ruminants  and  horses  is 
coarse  and  hard,  and  some  part  of  it  must  always 
be  used  up  to  furnish  energy  for  the  work  of  mastica- 
tion and  digestion.  In  addition,  some  of  the  food 
materials  undergo  so  much  bacterial  decomposition 
in  the  stomach  and  intestines  that  the  products 
which  thereby  arise  hardly  yield  anything  but  heat. 
Experiments  relative  to  these  conditions  have 
shown  that  when  timothy-hay  is  fed  at  least  40% 
of  the  digestible  nutrients  reappear  in  the  form  of 
heat  only,  and  in  coarsely  ground  maize  the  percent- 
age is  still  considerable — 22%. 

With  pigs  it  is  different,  for  they  get  much  less 
coarse  food,  and  with  them  bacterial  activity  is 
weaker.  In  these  animals  a  much  greater  pro- 
portion of  the  energy  of  the  digested  nutrients  re- 


58     SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

appears  in  the  dynamic  form  than  is  the  case  with 
ruminants. 

The  distinction  between  dynamic  and  thermic 
energy  is  of  great  importance,  for  a  proper  under- 
standing of  the  action  of  different  foods  on  the 
various  species  of  animals. 

It  must  be  clearly  understood  that  the  animal 
body  possesses  no  power  of  converting  heat  into 
work  or  other  form  of  energy.  Whatever  part  of 
the  food  has  taken  the  form  of  heat  has  passed 
beyond  the  influence  of  the  body ;  it  has  lost  the 
property  which  the  digested  nutrients  possess  of 
being  applied  to  various  purposes.  Heat,  once  it  is 
manifested,  can  only  act  as  such,  and  under  some 
conditions — high  temperature,  etc. — it  finds  no 
further  useful  application  in  the  body. 

(3)  Abundant   food   supply — Formation   of   fat 
and  flesh. 

If  an  animal  gets  an  abundant  supply  of  food, 
it  uses  part  of  it  for  maintenance.  The  excess  can 
go  to  increase  the  body  substance  or  serve  for  the 
production  of  useful  muscular  work.  A  ration 
which  yields  more  food  than  an  animal  requires 
for  maintenance  can,  therefore,  be  divided  into  two 
parts;  the  one  maintains  life,  the  other  serves  for 
the  production  of  tissue.  The  former  is  called  the 
maintenance  ration  and  the  latter  the  productive 


METABOLISM   AND    FOOD  59 

part  of  the  ration.  A  ration  can  be  complete  or 
one-sided  according  to  whether  it  brings  to  the 
animal  all  the  nutrients  which  it  requires,  or  whether 
some  are  present  in  insufficient  quantities,  or  not  at 
all.  A  food  which  contained  too  little  protein  or 
mineral  matter  would  be  termed  one-sided.  An 
animal  receiving  such  a  ration,  even  in  large  quanti- 
ties, would  be  obliged  to  draw  protein,  or  mineral 
substances,  from  its  own  body,  and  would  suffer 
from  "  protein  "  or  "  mineral  "  hunger. 

In  the  following  sections  the  action  of  the 
nutrients,  either  alone  or  mixed  with  one  another, 
will  be  discussed,  and  then  the  complete  food-stuffs 
themselves. 

(a)  The  effect  of  protein. 

1.  The  metabolism  of  protein  and  fat  when  only 
protein  is  given. 

Through  the  action  of  ferments  and  bacteria  in 
the  digestive  organs  the  food  proteins  are  changed 
for  the  most  part  into  simpler  substances — albu- 
moses,  peptones  (pp.  23,  24).  These  are  of  a  non- 
protein character,  and  are  easily  taken  up  by  the 
cells  of  the  alimentary  canal.  A  small  portion  ol 
the  food  protein  is,  however,  absorbed  without 
undergoing  this  preliminary  change.  Most  prob- 
ably the  simpler  substances  which  are  absorbed 
are  changed  again  into  protein  in  the  walls  of  the 
stomach  and  intestines,  for  although  the  intestine 


60     SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

may  be  filled  with  the  products  of  protein  digestion 
there  are  none  of  these  substances  to  be  detected 
in  its  walls  even  after  the  absorption  of  all  the 
contents  of  the  intestines.  These  changes  may  be 
said  to  be  effected  by  the  help  of  enzymes,  and  the 
proteins  which  result  closely  resemble  those  of  the 
animal  body.  The  splitting  up  of  the  different 
food  proteins  by  the  digestive  fluids  yields  in  this 
way  the  material  from  which  the  body  protein  is 
built  up.  So  it  is  clear  that  the  food  proteins,  which 
differ  considerably  from  the  tissue  proteins,  are 
nevertheless  essential  materials  for  the  building  up 
of  them.  In  the  above  metabolic  changes  waste 
products  are  formed,  as  they  are  in  the  process  of 
digestion. 

Numerous  feeding  experiments  have  shown  that 
no  animal  can  live  unless  it  gets  a  certain  quantity 
of  protein.  All  other  nutrients  may  be  there  in 
abundance,  but  if  protein  fails,  partially  or  entirely, 
the  animal  draws  daily  upon  its  own  body  for 
a  supply,  and  finally  dies  from  protein  starva- 
tion. 

The  way  in  which  this  takes  place  when  different 
amounts  of  protein  are  given  is  seen  from  the 
following  experiment. 

A  fully-grown  dog  which  weighed  30  kg.  (66  lbs.) 
used  up  the  following  quantities  of  body  protein 
and  body  fat  when  fasting  and  when  being  fed  with 
lean  meat,  which  is  almost  pure  protein. 


METABOLISM    AND    FOOD  61 

Loss  ( - )  or  gain  ( + )  of  tissue. 
Daily  Food.  Flesh.  Fat. 

Fasting  .  .  - 165  gr.  .  .  -  95  gr. 
500  gr.  flesh  .  -  99  gr.  .  .  -  47  gr. 
1000  gr.  flesh  .  -  79  gr.  .  .  - 19  gr. 
1500  gr.  flesh     .  0  gr.     .  +  4  gr. 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  loss  of  body  protein,  or 
body  fat,  is  smaller  the  larger  the  amount  of  protein 
in  the  food.  When  the  daily  supply  of  flesh  reached 
1500  gr.  the  body  did  not  require  to  provide  any 
protein,  and  a  condition  of  "protein,"  or  "nitrogen 
equilibrium,"  was  established.  The  proteins  of  the 
food  are,  therefore,  able  to  protect  the  body  proteins 
from  consumption.  Exactly  the  same  results  are 
obtained  when  the  animal  is  fed  with  artificially 
prepared  peptone  or  with  the  products  which  arise 
from  artificial  digestion  of  protein  by  means  of  gas- 
tric juice  and  which  contain  no  traces  of  protein  or 
peptones.  Gelatine,  which  is  usually  classed  along 
with  the  proteins,  has  a  much  less  favourable  effect 
and  does  not  appear  to  contain  the  substances  es- 
sential for  building  up  body  proteins.  Fed  to  dogs 
which  received  no  other  food,  gelatine  was  only  able 
to  replace  at  most  37%  of  the  protein  which  was 
used  up  during  fasting.  Dogs  which  were  in  a 
position  of  nitrogen  equilibrium  and  so  got  enough 
protein  to  make  withdrawal  from  their  own  tissue 
unnecessary,  only  maintained  this  equilibrium  when 


62    SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

not  more  than  one-fifth  of  the  protein  nitrogen  was 
replaced  by  gelatine  nitrogen. 

If  a  fully-grown  animal  is  given  more  protein 
than  it  metabolises,  when  in  a  state  of  hunger,  it 
soon  puts  itself  in  equilibrium  with  the  amount 
given,  that  is,  as  much  protein  is  destroyed  as  is 
present  in  the  food.  Where  the  amount  of  protein 
given  exceeds  that  in  the  preceding  feeding  the 
animal,  for  a  time,  lays  on  protein  tissue  before 
equilibrium  is  reached.  When,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  food  has  been  richer  in  protein,  the  reverse 
is  seen,  for  tissue  is  lost,  until  after  some  time  the 
intake  and  output  become  equal. 

Fully-grown  animals  have  clearly  not  the  power 
of  increasing  their  store  of  protein,  or  flesh,  beyond 
certain  limits.  An  examination  of  the  fibres  of 
flesh  shows  that  it  is  only  in  youth  that  they  can 
increase,  and  that  a  limit  to  the  increase  in  thickness 
is  also  set.  In  other  ways,  too,  it  is  clear  that  the 
store  of  flesh  in  an  animal  can  only  be  increased  to 
a  small  extent. 

The  work  of  which  an  animal  is  capable  depends 
in  general  upon  the  number  of  living  cells  in 
the  body,  and  if  these  were  intimately  dependent 
upon  the  supply  of  food  the  increase  or  decrease 
of  body  tissue  would  vary  rapidly  according  to 
any  change  of  food  which  might  occur.  This,  of 
course,  would  be  entirely  opposed  to  the  regular 
performance  of  work  and  resistance  to  various  in- 


METABOLISM    AND   FOOD  63 

fiuences  which  are  shown  by  the  animal.  The 
animal  organism,  therefore,  breaks  up  the  greater 
part  of  the  surplus  proteins  and  uses  them  in  place  of 
other  material  for  the  production  of  heat,  work,  or 
the  formation  of  fat.  This  last  serves  then  as  a 
reserve  which  can  be  drawn  upon  in  times  of  in- 
sufficient food  supply,  and  it  does  not  to  any  extent 
impair  the  capabilities  of  the  animal. 

It  has  been  proved  that  a  large  excess  of  protein 
given  to  an  adult  animal  causes  respiration  to  be 
more  rapid  and  the  supply  of  blood  to  the  skin  to 
increase.  Sometimes  also  the  body  temperature 
rises.  All  these  symptoms  indicate  increased  meta- 
bolism of  material  and  of  energy  and  lead  to  the 
decomposition  of  more  protein.  This  may,  in  fact, 
go  so  far  that  the  body  fat  is  also  included  in  the 
increased  decomposition. 

Animals  whose  limit  of  growth  is  not  yet 
reached  behave  quite  differently  with  regard  to 
the  greater  part  of  the  excess  of  the  food  pro- 
teins. They  utilise  them  in  the  body  for  development 
of  the  organs  without  the  effects  noted  above  being 
observed,  as  is  the  case  with  adult  animals. 

For  example,  full-grown  sheep  retain  as  a  rule 
10  gr.,  at  most  15  gr.,  of  protein  daily  in  the  body, 
most  of  this,  if  not  the  whole,  going  to  form  wool. 
Lambs,  on  the  other  hand,  in  spite  of  the 
smaller  body  weight,  are  able  to  store  40-50  gr. 
daily.      Investigations   with    sucking    calves   have 


64     SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

shown  that  these  animals  are  able  to  utilise  72% 
of  the  protein  of  the  milk  for  the  formation  of  flesh, 
which  is  a  very  high  percentage. 

2.  Formation  of  fat  from  protein. 

Various  investigations  point  to  the  conclusion 
that  in  the  splitting  up  of  protein  (p.  42)  in  the 
animal  cells,  sugar  is  formed,  along  with  nitrogenous 
substances.  In  a  healthy  animal  the  sugar  is  at 
once  utilised,  but  if  the  body  has  lost  this  power, 
as  in  diabetic  diseases,  then  sugar  appears  in  con- 
siderable quantities  in  the  urine,  although  the  food 
may  consist  only  of  lean  meat. 

It  will  shortly  be  seen  that  under  certain  condi- 
tions fat  can  be  formed  from  sugar  in  the  body,  so 
it  may  be  concluded  that  protein  can  take  part  in 
the  formation  of  fat.  Investigations  on  carnivorous 
animals  which  were  given  lean  meat  in  large  quanti- 
ties fully  confirm  this.  With  herbivorous  animals 
such  investigations  are  impossible,  for  they  cannot 
subsist  on  a  diet  of  pure  protein,  without  other  foods 
being  given.  It  is  possible  though  to  arrange 
experiments  so  that  the  increase  of  fat  can  be 
determined  when  a  known  weight  of  protein  is 
added  to  a  basal  ration.  From  a  number  of  such 
investigations  it  has  been  found  that  on  an  average 
1  kilogram  of  vegetable  protein  (wheat  gluten) 
gives  a  maximum  addition  of  235  gr.  fat.  It  was 
further  found  that  only  35%  of  the  energy  of  the 
protein  went  to  form  fat,   19%  was   lost    in   the 


METABOLISM    AND    FOOD  65 

urine  and  46%  dissipated  as  heat.  Before  the 
above-mentioned  investigations  were  made  it  was 
calculated  from  the  composition  of  the  proteins 
and  of  the  urea  formed  from  it  that  100  parts  of 
protein  could  yield  51-4  parts  of  fat.  This  number 
— Henneberg's  number  as  it  is  called — plays  an 
important  part  in  many  investigations,  but  it  is 
certainly  too  high,  for  in  arriving  at  it,  it  was  as- 
sumed that  all  the  nitrogen  of  the  protein  formed 
urea,  and  that  the  formation  of  fat  is  not  accom- 
panied by  any  development  of  heat.  Neither  of 
these  assumptions  is  quite  correct,  for  waste  pro- 
ducts richer  in  carbon  than  urea  are  formed,  and 
so  less  of  this  element  remains  for  the  production 
of  fat.  Also  there  is  always  some  heat  developed 
during  metabolism,  as  was  stated  on  page  56. 
Henneberg's  number,  or  factor,  will  be  frequently 
mentioned  later,  and  it  is  now  seen  by  what  methods 
it  was  obtained. 


(b)  The  effect  of  non-protein  nitrogenous  substances. 

These  substances  are  soluble  in  water,  and  can 
pass  through  the  walls  of  animal  cells  ;  they  are 
usually  assumed  to  be  completely  digestible.  As- 
paragine  may  be  taken  as  a  typical^  member  of  the 
group,  and  where  it  was  fed  to  carnivorous  animals 
it  was  not  able  to  replace  protein,  but  behaved  like 
large  doses  of  salt  and  increased  the  decomposition 


66     SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

of  protein.  Omnivorous  animals,  such  as  rats, 
died  from  protein  starvation  when  a  complete  food 
in  which  protein  had  been  replaced  by  asparagine 
was  given.  It  was  also  immaterial  whether  aspara- 
gine was  added  to  the  food  or  not ;  death  occurred 
in  the  same  time  in  both  cases.  With  ruminants 
it  was  different,  for  the  addition  of  asparagine  to  a 
food  rich  in  carbohydrates  but  poor  in  protein 
effected  a  considerable  saving  in  the  latter;  a 
similar  effect  was  noticed  also  when  ammonium 
acetate  was  added  to  the  food.  In  experiments 
with  lambs  which  received  the  same  basal  ration 
the  daily  increase  of  protein  was  as  follows — 

Without  any  addition     .         .         .      4-1  gr. 

Addition  of  asparagine   .         .         .15-6  gr. 

,,       ammonium  acetate      .     15-7  gr. 

Ruminants  then  behave  differently  to  the  car- 
nivora  and  herbivora  as  regards  the  non-protein 
of  the  food.  Fundamental  differences  in  the  way 
in  which  the  nutrients  are  treated  in  the  body 
cells  are  in  any  case  not  to  be  expected.  The 
various  species,  however,  do  differ  in  the  way  in 
which  the  work  of  the  alimentary  canal  is  performed, 
and  it  is  here  that  an  explanation  must  be  sought. 
Most  probably  the  differences  are  caused  by  the 
bacteria,  for  ammonia  and  asparagine  are  known 
to  be  excellent  foods  for  them.     It  may  be  that 


METABOLISM   AND    FOOD  67 

these  micro-organisms,  with  the  assistance  of  the 
nitrogen-free  substances,  form  proteins  in  one  part 
of  the  intestines,  which  are  again  digested  in  another 
part.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  possible  that  when 
the  bacteria  can  get  such  an  acceptable  food  as 
asparagine  or  ammonia  they  destroy  less  protein, 
and  so  leave  more  available  for  the  real  enzyme 
digestion  (p.  22).  In  this  way  more  protein 
would  be  placed  indirectly  at  the  disposal  of  the 
animal.  Bacteria  are  present  in  large  quantities 
in  the  partly  digested  food  of  ruminants,  whereas 
considerably  fewer  are  found  in  that  of  carnivorous 
animals.  This  would  explain  how  the  former  class 
are  able  to  make  better  use  of  the  non-protein 
nitrogenous  substances. 

It  has  not  yet  been  clearly  shown  whether  other 
substances  besides  asparagine  and  ammonia  can 
act  similarly  ;  for  the  present  it  is  only  possible  to 
say  that  amido  compounds  can  be  utilised  by 
ruminants  in  the  way  described. 

For  the  non-protein  compounds  in  molasses  it 
has  been  proved  that  they  are  not  in  a  position  to 
maintain  ruminants  in  a  position  of  protein  equili- 
brium, to  say  nothing  of  causing  an  increase  of  protein 
tissue.  Experiments  have  also  shown  that  the  non- 
protein nitrogen  substances  of  potatoes  and  mangels 
are  as  valueless  for  the  nourishment  of  rabbits  as 
asparagine  is  for  flesh-eating  animals.  The  pro- 
ducts which  arise  on  boiling  protein  with  strong 


68     SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

acids  have  also  shown  themselves  unable  to  replace 
food  protein  when  fed  with  large  quantities  of 
nitrogen-free  substance  to  dogs,  rats,  and  mice. 
Only  with  those  substances  which  result  from  the 
decomposition  of  protein  by  pancreatic  juice,  and 
which  contain  therefore  all  that  is  in  the  protein, 
has  the  effect  on  carnivora  been  shown  to  be 
the  same  as  with  proteins  themselves.  Many  in- 
vestigators have  prematurely  concluded  from  this 
that  the  amides  of  the  food,  if  fed  together  and  not 
alone,  must  give  results  similar  to  those  from  the 
proteids.  That,  however,  could  only  be  the  case 
if  the  mixture  of  amido  substances  in  each  food 
contained  the  materials  from  which  protein  could 
be  built  up,  as  the  products  of  digestion  just 
mentioned  do.  The  above  experiments  with  the 
amides  of  potatoes  and  mangels  prove  this  as- 
sumption to  be  incorrect.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  even  gelatine,  which  stands  in  very  close 
relation  to  protein  and  is,  in  fact,  put  in  that  class, 
cannot  take  the  place  of  the  true  proteins  in  the 
case  of  carnivorous  animals  (p.  61). 

Investigations  as  to  the  part  which  non-protein 
nitrogenous  compounds  play  in  the  formation  of 
fat  have  so  far  only  been  made  with  asparagine. 
Upon  sheep  it  has  been  shown  that  these  materials 
cannot  be  changed  into  body  fat.  This  agrees  per- 
fectly with  the  fact  that  asparagine,  where  it  is  not 
changed  by  the  bacteria  of  the  intestines,  possesses 


METABOLISM    AND    FOOD  69 

no  protein-saving  action.  All  food  nutrients,  then, 
which  are  capable  of  conversion  into  fat  in  the  body 
possess  at  the  same  time  the  power  of  economising 
protein.  Whether  the  nitrogen  compounds  of  non- 
protein nature  which  contain  more  carbon  than 
asparagine  can  take  part  in  the  formation  of  fat 
has  not  yet  been  decided.  In  fact,  the  whole  ques- 
tion as  to  the  position  of  these  materials  in  the  food 
supply  requires  more  investigation.  As  far  as  has 
been  proved,  it  may  be  said  that  ruminants  receiving 
a  food  poor  in  protein,  but  rich  in  non-protein, 
can  utilise  the  latter  to  make  flesh,  but  not  fat, 
the  change  being  brought  about  by  help  of  the 
bacteria  in  the  partly  digested  food.  Some  further 
experiments  on  this  subject  will  be  given  in  the- 
chapter  on  the  feeding  of  milch  cattle. 

(c)  The  effect  of  nitrogen-free  nutrients. 

The  different  nitrogen-free  constituents  of  the 
food — the  fats,  the  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  the 
crude  fibre,  exercise  in  general  the  same  effect. 
The  fats  are  the  most  concentrated  form  of  nutrient ; 
on  digestion  they  suffer  no  severe  loss,  for  they 
are  not  apparently  acted  upon  by  bacteria  or 
the  digestive  juices,  except  that  the  latter  split 
them  up  into  free  fatty  acids  and  glycerine. 
Immediately  after  entrance  into  the  fluids  of  the 
body,  these  components  are  again  formed  into  fat. 


70     SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

Fats,  like  protein  and  amides,  undergo  no  marsh 
gas  fermentation.  Only  those  parts  of  the  crude  fat 
(p.  12)  which  are  true  fats  undergo  digestion;  the 
wax-like  substances,  chlorophyll,  resins,  etc.,  are 
excreted  undigested.  The  heat,  or  energy,  content 
of  the  fats  is  unsurpassed  by  any  other  digestible 
food  material,  the  vegetable  fat  of  oily  seeds  or  oil 
cakes  yielding  9300-9500  cal.  from  1  gr.,  whilst  the 
fat  from  coarse  fodder  has  an  average  value  of 
8200  cal.  It  is  this  that  accounts  for  the  high  food 
value  of  fat. 

From  the  nitrogen-free  extract  and  crude  fibre 
of  the  food  only  those  materials  are  digested  which, 
inclusive  of  the  pentosans,  possess  the  same  percent- 
age composition  and  heat  value  as  carbohydrates 
of  the  class  of  pure  starch  and  pure  cellulose.  This 
fact  has  been  proved  by  most  thorough  investiga- 
tions and  it  makes  the  estimate  of  the  feeding 
values  of  these  substances  considerably  easier. 
Cane,  fruit,  grape  and  milk  sugars  have  a  somewhat 
different  nature.  They  contain  a  smaller  quantity 
of  carbon  and  possess  a  lower  heat  value  than  the 
digestible  portion  of  the  other  nitrogen-free  extract 
substances  and  crude  fibre.  These  two  latter  yield 
on  combustion  4200  cal.  for  each  gram  burnt ;  milk 
and  cane  sugars  yield  3950  cal.,  and  grape  sugar 
3740  cal. ;  similar  differences  being  also  shown  in 
the  feeding  value  of  the  substances. 

The  other  nitrogen-free  compounds,  the  organic 


METABOLISM    AND    FOOD  71 

acids,  might  also  be  mentioned  here,  but  as  they 
are  only  present  in  small  quantities  in  the  usual 
feeding-stuffs  they  may  be  left  out  of  consideration. 
It  may  be  noted  further  that  crude  fibre  and 
nitrogen  -  free  extract  are  decomposed  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  by  bacteria  in  the  intestines, 
and  thereby  organic  acids,  carbon  dioxide,  and 
marsh  gas  are  formed.  The  organic  acids  enter 
the  circulation,  but  the  marsh  gas  leaves  the 
body,  unused,  in  large  quantities.  This  loss  is 
considerable,  and  reckoned  upon  the  digestible 
part  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract  and  crude  fibre 
reaches  on  an  average  4-3%  marsh  gas,  equal 
to  I3'7%  of  the  total  heat  value  of  the  digested 
substance.  With  very  hard  food-stuffs  it  is  still 
more,  and  in  wheat  straw,  for  example,  amounts  to 
20%  of  the  heat  value.  The  average  amount  of 
heat  in  1  gram  of  digested  nitrogen-free  extract  and 
crude  fibre,  after  deducting  the  loss  of  marsh  gas, 
is  in  round  figures  3600  cal.  The  food  metabolism, 
after  feeding  with  nitrogen-free  nutrients,  may  now 
be  considered. 

(d)  The  action  of  nitrogen-free  nutrients  upon  the 
protein  and  fat  metabolism. 

The  clearest  insight  into  the  effects  is  given 
from  investigations  which  have  been  carried  out 
upon  carnivorous  animals,  a  single  example  of 
which   will   suffice.    Three   dogs    received   a    food 


72     SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

entirely  free  from  nitrogen,  and  during  the  experi- 
ment gained  ( + )  or  lost  ( - )  the  following  weights 
of  body  substance — 

I. 

Method  of  Loss  of 

Feeding.  Flesh.  Fat. 

Fasting      .         .         .  -  io-i  gr.       -  60-5  gr. 

200  gr.  bacon    .         .         .  -  io-i  gr.      +128-2  gr. 

II. 
Fasting     ....      -11*2  gr.       -  427  gr. 

17-0  gr.  sugar    ...      -    8-5  gr.        ~35-8gr. 

III. 

Fasting  ....  - 15-8  gr.  -  25-0  gr. 
94  gr.  sugar+68  gr.  starch 

+47  gr.  fat  .         .         .      -    7-4  gr.       +58-2  gr. 

Thus  feeding  with  a  ration  composed  only  of 
nitrogen-free  material  decreases  the  metabolism 
of  body  protein  and  body  fat.  Such  nitrogen- 
free  nutrients  preserve  then  the  proteins  and  fats. 
If  along  with  the  nitrogen-free  substances  proteins 
are  also  fed,  the  protein  metabolism  regulates  itself 
according  to  the  supply  of  protein  in  the  food,  as 
was  previously  seen  (p.  62).  Under  the  influence 
of  nitrogen-free  substances  a  slightly  smaller  quan- 
tity of  protein  is  metabolised  than  without.  A 
dog  of  about  35  kilos  (yy  lbs.)  weight  was  fed  accord- 
ing to  the  following  table,  with  the  results  recorded 
below — 


METABOLISM    AND    FOOD  73 

Daily  ration.         Decomposition  Gain  (+)  or 

Meat  Starch.      of  protein  loss  ( - )  of 

(protein).  in  the  body,  body  protein. 

500  gr.  0  gr.       564  gr.  -    64  gr. 

500  gr.  100-300  gr.       502  gr.  -      2  gr. 

800  gr.  0  gr.       826  gr.  -    26  gr. 

800  gr.  100-400  gr.       763  gr.  +  37  gr. 

1000  gr.  0  gr.     1028  gr.  -    28  gr. 

1000  gr.  100-400  gr.       902  gr.  +  98  gr. 

2000  gr.  0  gr.     1991  gr.  +     9  gr. 

2000  gr.  200-300  gr.     1792  gr.  +208  gr. 

With  the  addition  of  protein  to  the  diet  the 
nitrogen  metabolism  increased;  when  starch  was 
added  a  decrease  in  the  metabolism  was  noticed, 
and  led  to  a  storage  of  protein  in  the  body. 

Further  investigations  have  shown  that  the 
quantity  of  protein  which  just  suffices  for  an 
animal  can  be  considerably  reduced  if  nitrogen-free 
substances  are  fed  with  the  protein.  A  dog 
weighing  30  kilos  (66  lbs.)  required  1200-1500  gr. 
of  lean  meat  in  order  not  to  lose  body  flesh ;  if,  how- 
ever, fat  (250  gr.)  was  given  along  with  the  meat, 
then  500  gr.  sufficed  to  prevent  loss  from  the  body. 
In  this  connection  it  has  been  shown  that  the 
minimum  requirements  in  protein  are  astonish- 
ingly low,  when  at  the  same  time  large  quantities 
of  nitrogen-free  substances  are  consumed.  The 
full-grown   ruminant   does   not    require    to    draw 


74     SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

upon  its  reserve  of  protein  when  0-4-0-6  lb.  of 
digestible  protein  per  1000  lbs.  body  weight  are 
given.  Equally  low  figures  would  also  be  found 
in  the  case  of  men  accustomed  to  a  purely  vege- 
table diet. 

The  protective  action  of  the  nitrogen-free  nu- 
trients extends,  as  has  been  seen,  not  only  to  the 
protein  of  the  body,  but  also  to  that  of  the  food. 
If  an  animal  has  the  power  of  turning  large  quanti- 
ties of  protein  into  flesh,  it  is  not  necessary  to  feed 
with  a  lot  of  food  rich  in  protein,  for  a  small 
quantity  suffices  provided  a  sufficient  supply  of 
nitrogen  -  free  substances  is  given.  The  latter, 
then,  play  a  very  important  part  in  the  formation 
of  flesh. 

(e)  Formation  of  body  fat  from  food  fat. 

The  first  investigations  as  to  whether  the  fat  of 
the  food  can  be  stored  in  the  body  were  performed 
with  a  dog  which,  after  fasting  for  thirty  days,  de- 
creased in  weight  from  26-5  to  16-0  kilos.  In  this 
state  it  was  computed  from  other  experiments 
that  the  body  did  not  contain  more  than  150  gr.  fat. 
The  animal  was  then  given,  for  five  days,  a  large 
quantity  of  fat,  the  average  daily  amount  being 
370-8  gr.  and  49  gr.  dry  flesh.  At  the  end  of  the 
experiment  the  animal  was  killed  and  the  body 
was  found  to  contain  1352-7  gr.  fat,  from  which 
the  150  gr.  present  at  the  beginning  must  be  de- 


METABOLISM    AND    FOOD  75 

ducted.  A  further  deduction  had  to  be  made  for 
the  fat  (26-1  gr.)  which  might,  according  to  Henne- 
berg's  figures  (p.  65)  be  formed  from  the  49  gr.  of 
flesh  in  the  food.  So  a  total  deduction  of  26-1  x  5  = 
I3°'5  gr-  na(i  to  be  added  to  the  150  gr.  present  in 
the  body  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment. 
Subtracting  these  two  amounts  280-5  from  13527, 
the  fat  added  to  the  body,  there  is  left  1072.2  gr. 
which  could  only  have  come  from  the  food  fat. 
This  divided  by  five  gives  the  daily  addition  of 
214-4  gr.  of  fat  from  the  370-8  gr.  of  fat  (and  the 
small  quantity  of  flesh)  in  the  food. 

Numerous  other  experiments,  in  which  the 
materials  going  into  and  leaving  the  body  were 
carefully  measured  by  means  of  a  respiration  ap- 
paratus (p.  46),  confirm  these  results.  An  example 
is  seen  in  experiment  III  of  the  table  on  page  72. 

The  determination  of  the  quantity  of  body  fat 
which  can  arise  from  a  known  quantity  of  food  fat 
has  been  carried  out  on  fattening  oxen,  and  it  has 
been  shown  that  1  kilo  emulsified  earth-nut  oil 
causes  an  increase  of  598  gr.  in  the  fat  of  the  body. 
Thus  64-4%  of  the  energy  of  the  digested  oil  has 
been  retained  as  newly-created  body  fat,  and  35-6% 
has  been  lost.  The  fat  from  the  different  kinds  of 
hay  or  straw  possesses  a  considerably  smaller  energy 
value  (p.  70),  and  a  kilogram  of  it  would  only  pro- 
duce 474  gr.  body  fat.  The  cereal  grains  and  their 
by-products  yield  fats  which  take  a  medium  posi- 


76     SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

tion,  each  kilogram  giving  on  an  average  526  gr. 
body  fat. 

The  ability  of  the  animal  to  store  the  fat  of  the 
food  in  the  body  extends  to  fats  which  are  other- 
wise foreign  to  the  organism.  It  has  been  noticed 
that  lean  dogs  fed  with  large  quantities  of  linseed 
oil  developed  fat  which  differed  very  considerably 
from  the  usual  fat  of  the  dog,  and  remained  liquid 
even  at  o°  C.  (32°F.).  Further,  a  dog  in  a  lean 
condition  after  being  fed  on  mutton  suet  stored 
in  its  tissues  a  fat  which  did  not  melt  at  500  C. 
In  another  experiment  two  young  pigs  were  fed  on 
barley  meal  and  then  from  each  a  small  piece  was  cut 
from  the  layer  of  fat  on  the  back,  cocaine  being  used 
to  prevent  pain.  In  both  cases  the  fat  had  exactly 
similar  properties.  One  pig  was  then  fed  for  ten 
weeks  on  barley  meal  and  linseed  oil  and  the  other  for 
the  same  length  of  time  on  barley  meal  and  cocoa-nut 
oil.  Afterwards  small  portions  of  fat  were  again 
taken  from  the  backs,  and  it  was  found  that  where 
the  linseed  oil  had  been  given  the  fat  was  soft  and 
had  the  characteristic  smell  of  linseed  oil  as  well  as 
containing  some  materials  (sativinic  acid)  peculiar 
to  that  oil.  The  pig  which  had  been  given  cocoa-nut 
oil  yielded  a  fat  which  was  much  firmer  and  which 
could  be  distinguished  chemically  from  that  of  the 
other  pig.  These  examples  and  many  more  prove 
that  not  only  can  the  fat  of  the  food  be  stored  in 
the  body,  but  also  that  it  is  possible  to  make  the 


METABOLISM    AND    FOOD  77 

bacon  or  suet  harder  or  softer  ;    to  this  point  a 
return  will  be  made  later. 


(/)  Formation  of  body  fat  from  carbohydrates. 

Although  it  must  long  have  been  seen  in  practice, 
particularly  in  feeding  pigs,  that  the  carbohydrates 
play  a  very  important  part  in  the  formation  of 
fat,  it  was  some  time  before  definite  proof  was  given 
on  this  point.  The  opinion  held  was  that  next  to 
the  fat  of  the  food  the  splitting  up  of  the  protein 
was  the  important  source  of  fat.  This  being  the 
case,  it  was  only  necessary  in  an  investigation 
to  calculate  the  amount  of  fat  which  could  come 
from  these  two  sources,  and  if  it  were  assumed 
that  all  the  fat  and  51-4%  (p.  65)  of  the  decom- 
posed protein  passed  into  newly  formed  body  fat, 
then  the  increase  of  the  latter  would  be  directly 
due  to  these  two  substances. 

When,  however,  in  1 880-1  experiments  were 
made  with  a  ration  very  poor  in  protein  and  fat, 
it  was  observed  that  the  quantity  of  fat  stored  in 
the  body  was  far  greater  than  could  have  arisen 
from  the  fat  of  the  food,  or  from  the  decom- 
position of  the  food  protein. 

The  investigations  were  carried  out  on  three  pigs 
which  were  fed  for  321  days  before  the  experiment 
began  on  a  rather  low  diet.  The  animals,  which 
were  very  much  alike  as  regards  weight  and  condi- 


78     SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

tion,  were  found  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment 
to  weigh  99-36,  99-60,  96-60  kilograms  respectively. 
The  pig  weighing  99-36  kilos  was  then  killed  and 
analysed.  The  other  two  pigs  received  husked 
rice  as  food  for  75  and  82  days  respectively,  and 
gained  during  that  time  39-07  and  3876  kilos.  At 
the  end  of  the  feeding  period  a  chemical  analysis 
of  the  animals  was  made,  and  the  results  compared 
with  those  obtained  before  the  experiment  began. 
In  this  way  a  direct  determination  of  the  increase 
of  flesh  and  fat  from  the  rice  was  made.  The 
quantity  of  protein,  fat,  and  carbohydrates  in  the 
food  which  had  been  digested  was  also  determined. 

The  average  amount  of  fat  made  by  the 

animal  from  the  rice  was     .         .         .     16-13  kg. 
The  amount  of  fat  in  the  food  was  .         .       0-32  kg. 


Newly  formed  fat     15-81  kg. 
5-32  kg.  of  food   protein  were  split  up 
which,  according  to  Henneberg's  calcu- 
lation (p.  65),  could  yield  in  the  most 
favourable  case  .         .         .         .2-73  kg. 

The  amount  of  fat  which  has  come  from 

the  carbohydrates  is  at  least      .         .     13-08  kg. 


Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  pigs  formed  four  times 
more  fat  than  could  be  got  from  the  fat  of  the  food 


METABOLISM    AND    FOOD  79 

or  the  decomposition  of  the  protein.  This  result 
was  repeatedly  supported  by  further  investigations 
with  sheep,  fattening  oxen,  and  geese,  and  also 
with  carnivorous  animals,  so  that  it  has  been 
proved  that  domestic  animals  form  large  quantities 
of  fat  from  carbohydrates.  The  question  then 
arose  whether  by  this  transformation  the  carbo- 
hydrate portion  of  the  food  protein  played  a 
direct  or  indirect  part.  On  the  false  assumption 
that  it  is  necessary  to  give  a  large  supply  of  protein 
in  a  feeding  ration,  many  believed  that  the  forma- 
tion of  fat  from  carbohydrates  could  not  take  place 
completely  without  the  help  of  protein.  A  case 
is  seen  on  page  72,  Experiment  III,  where  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  fat  was  formed  when  no  pro- 
tein at  all  was  given.  The  small  amount  of  pro- 
tein matter  came  from  the  body  tissue,  the  food 
consisting  only  of  carbohydrates  with  a  little  fat. 

In  other  investigations  carried  out  with  the  help 
of  the  respiration  chamber,  it  was  shown  that  the 
formation  of  fat  took  place  whether  the  relation  of 
digestible  protein  in  the  food  was  1 :  2-4  of  nitrogen- 
free  substance  or  1  :  12-14  of  the  latter.  With 
oxen  it  was  proved  in  the  same  way  that  from  each 
kilogram  of  digestible  nutrients  above  the  mainten- 
ance ration,  the  following  quantities  of  body  fat, 
202,  202,  217  grams,  were  obtained.  In  these  three 
cases  the  relation  of  digestible  protein  to  nitrogen- 
free  extract  was  1  :  4,  1  :  10-11,  1  :  16  respectively. 


8o     SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

None  of  these  experiments  show  that  protein  is 
necessary  for  the  formation  of  fat  from  carbo- 
hydrates, and  this  has  been  repeatedly  confirmed 
in  other  experiments.  It  must  not,  however,  be 
concluded  from  this  that  the  quantity  of  protein 
in  a  feeding  ration  is  not  of  importance,  for  it  has 
already  been  shown  (p.  37)  that  the  digestibility 
of  a  food  is  depressed  where  there  is  not  a  certain 
quantity  of  protein  in  it.  It  will  also  be  seen 
]ater  that  growing,  fattening  animals  require  fairly 
large  quantities  of  protein  for  the  formation  of 
body  tissue. 

In  order  to  ascertain  the  quantity  of  fat  which 
can  be  formed  from  the  various  carbohydrates, 
several  investigations  with  oxen  have  been  carried 
out.  The  method  adopted  was  to  add  the  material 
to  be  tested  to  a  basal  ration,  the  action  of  which 
was  determined  either  before  or  after  the  addition. 
The  results  showed  that  body  fat  was  stored  in  the 
following  quantities — 

From  1  kg.  digestible  starch  .         .         .     248  gr.  fat 
„      cane  sugar  ....     188  gr.  ,, 
„      crude  fibre   ....     253  gr.  „ 

The  crude  fibre  was  given  in  pure  finely  divided 
form  (straw  pulp  of  paper  works),  and  it  is  seen 
that  in  this  condition  it  has  about  the  same  effect 
as  pure  starch.     In  round  numbers  57%  of  the 


METABOLISM    AND    FOOD  81 

heat  value  of  these  two  substances  was  stored  up 
as  body  fat,  whereas  from  the  cane  sugar  only  45% 
was  stored.  The  smaller  return  obtained  from 
the  sugar  is  doubtless  to  be  explained  by  the  fact 
that  this  material  is  very  easily  soluble  and  there- 
fore more  largely  attacked  by  the  bacteria  in  the 
intestines  than  are  the  starch  or  crude  fibre. 

It  is  well  known  that  solutions  of  sugar  readily 
become  sour  when  mixed  with  fermenting  sub- 
stances, and  it  has  been  observed  that  shortly  after 
ruminants  have  eaten  sugar  there  is  very  little  to  be 
detected  in  the  partially  digested  food,  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  considerable  quantities  of  lactic  acid. 

With  pigs,  in  whose  alimentary  canal  the  bac- 
terial activity  is  much  less,  and  also  with  horses, 
most  probably  the  sugar  gives  a  much  more  favour- 
able return  than  with  ruminants.  Lactic  acid  is 
not  able,  as  has  been  shown  from  investigations  on 
this  point,  to  undergo  conversion  into  body  fat,  so 
it  can  only  serve  as  a  source  of  heat  to  the  animal. 

If  the  results  of  all  the  investigations  which  have 
been  made  on  the  action  of  digestible  components 
of  the  food  were  put  together  they  could  be  ex- 
pressed in  the  following  sentences — 

(a)  Flesh  is  formed  in  the  body  principally  from 
protein.  Amongst  the  nitrogenous  substances  of 
non-protein  nature  there  are  some  which  can  be 
changed  in  the  intestines  with  the  help  of  bacteria 
into  protein,  and  so  take  part  in  the  formation  of 

G 


82     SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

flesh.  To  these  substances  belong  asparagine  and 
ammonia.  The  behaviour  of  other  members  of  this 
large  group  has  not  yet  been  determined. 

This  formation  of  protein  only  takes  place  to 
any  extent  in  the  alimentary  canal  of  the  ruminants ; 
with  horses  and  pigs  it  is  probably  very  slight, 
in  fact  with  the  latter  there  may  be  no  such  changes. 

Although  nitrogen-free  extract  substances  and 
fat  do  not  take  a  direct  part  in  the  formation  of 
flesh,  they  have  an  important  influence  on  the  de- 
composition of  the  food  protein,  for  they  are  able 
to  decrease  decomposition  of  this  material,  and  so 
a  larger  proportion  is  free  to  form  body  protein 
(flesh  and  milk). 

(0)  Fat  can  be  formed  in  the  body  either  from 
the  fat  of  the  food  or  from  nitrogen-free  extract 
substances  and  crude  fibre. 

(g)  The  utilisation  of  complete  foods. 

In  accordance  with  the  foregoing  statements, 
ruminants  are  able  to  form  the  following  quantities 
of  fat  from  digested  food  materials  (if  they  are 
added  in  pure,  finely  divided  form  to  a  maintenance 
ration). 

From  i  kg.  protein    ....     235  gr.  fat 

,,  1  kg.  starch  and  crude  fibre  .  248  gr.  „ 
„  1  kg.  cane  sugar  .  .  .  188  gr.  „ 
„      1  kg.  fat  .  .  474-598  gr.  „ 


METABOLISM    AND    FOOD  83 

From  the  large  number  of  investigations  which 
have  been  carried  out  in  the  last  few  years,  it  is 
possible  to  learn  whether  the  digestible  nutrients 
of  the  ordinary  feeding-stuffs  act  in  the  same  way, 
or  differently,  to  the  representatives  of  the  same 
groups  when  fed  in  pure  form.  Experiments  were 
carried  out  with  the  aid  of  the  respiration  chamber 
in  exactly  the  same  way  as  was  done  with  the  pure 
nutrients.  A  known  quantity  of  the  feeding-stuff 
was  added  to  a  basal  ration  sufficient  for  mainten- 
ance, and  the  digestibility  as  well  as  the  increase  of 
flesh  and  fat  were  determined  for  the  maintenance 
ration  and  for  the  increased  ration.  In  this  way 
it  was  found  what  amount  of  flesh  and  fat  was 
obtained  from  the  added  food-stuff.  In  the  case 
of  various  oil-cake  meals  it  was  shown  that  from 
each  kilogram  of  dry  substances  consumed  the 
animals  digested  the  following  quantities,  in  grams — 

Cotton-seed   Earth-nut    Palm-nut     Linseed 
cake  meal.       meal.       cake  meal,  cake  meal. 


Protein          .         .     396 

433 

146 

345 

Fat    .             .         .     130 

78 

75 

84 

Nitrogen-free  extract 

or  crude  fibre      .     121 

161 

403 

261 

If  these  nutrients  had  behaved  exactly  as  the 
pure  digestible  protein,  fat,  and  carbohydrates,* 
then  there  would  have  been  stored  in  the  body  of 

*  Carbohydrates  =  nitrogen-free  extract  +  crude  fibre. 


84     SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

the  animal   the  following  quantities,  in  grams,  of 
fat— 

Cotton-seed   Earth-nut   Palm-nut    Linseed 
cake  meal.       meal.      cake  meal,  cake  meal. 

From  the  protein        93  102  34  81 
„       „     fat         .       78  47  45  50 
„     carbo- 
hydrates* 30  40  100  65 

Altogether     201         189  179  196 

In  the  experiment  f 
with  the  animal 
there  was  acually 
found         .         .     197         189  183  192 

Thus  there  is  an  almost  complete  agreement 
between  the  calculated  quantity  of  fat  and  that 
actually  found  in  the  animal.  It  is  seen  that  the 
digested  nutrients  have  in  fact  acted  exactly  as  if 
the  same  quantities  of  pure  digestible  protein,  fat, 
or  carbohydrates  had  been  given  to  the  animal. 
From  these  facts  it  is  shown  further  that  the  pro- 
tein, fat,  and  carbohydrates  have  the  same  action, 
although  coming  from  such  different  materials  as 
the  four  oil-cake  meals.  Finally,  these  experi- 
ments teach  that  the  figures  obtained  are  a  good 
standard  by  which  the  action  of  the  different  food- 
stuffs can  be  measured. 

Investigations  with  a  number  of  different  hays 

*  Carbohydrates  =  nitrogen-free  extract  +  crude  fibre, 
t  Inclusive  of  very  small  quantities  of  flesh  which  were  calculated 
as  fat,  and  this  amount  added  to  the  other  fat. 


METABOLISM   AND    FOOD  85 

and  straws  carried  out  in  a  similar  manner  showed 
that  from  1  kilo  dry  substance  the  following  addi- 
tions of  fat,  in  grams,  were  to  be  expected,  if  the 
digested  materials  had  also  behaved  as  do  the 
pure  nutrients — 

Wheat  straw.    Oat      Barley  Meadow  hay.  Clover  Grass   After- 
a  b      straw,     straw,      a  b  hay.      hay.    math. 

Fat  calculated    104     82     109     117     129     156     125     153     124 
„    actually- 
found    .     21     24      66       79      81     109       85       85       79 

Difference  83  58  43  36  48  47  40  48  45 
Percentage  dif- 
ference be- 
tween calcu- 
lated and 
observed  in- 
crease of  fat     80     71       40       31       37       30       32       36       36 

Here  very  different  results  are  obtained  to  those 
with  the  oil  cakes.  The  calculated  increase  of  fat 
does  not  agree  with  that  observed  in  the  animal. 
In  each  case  the  fodder  has  yielded  less  fat  than 
was  expected,  supposing  the  digested  nutrients  in 
the  hay  and  straw  to  act  as  do  the  pure,  isolated 
nutrients.  The  difference  in  the  wheat  straw  is 
70-80%,  in  the  oat  and  barley  straws  30-40%,  and 
with  the  various  varieties  of  hay  also  30-40%. 
If,  then,  in  calculating  rations  the  same  value  were 
given  to  the  digestible  materials  of  the  coarse 
fodders  as  to  those  of  the  oil-cake  meals,  the  food 
value  of  hay  and  straw  would  be  estimated  30-80% 
too  high.  The  quantity  of  digestible  nutrients 
without  reference  to  their  effect  cannot  therefore 


86     SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

be  used  as  a  basis  upon  which  to  calculate  rations. 
The  productive  value  of  the  nutrients  has  to  be 
considered,  and  this  can  vary  a  great  deal,  as  is 
shown  from  the  comparison  of  the  oil-cake  meals 
and  the  coarse  fodders. 

Attention  has  already  been  called  (p.  20)  to  the 
fact  that  the  work  of  mastication  and  of  digestion 
is  not  by  any  means  small  in  the  case  of  coarse  foods. 
To  obtain  definite  information  on  this  point,  straw 
was  fed  in  one  case  as  coarse  chaff  and  in  the  other 
in  a  finely  ground  form.  It  was  found  that  the 
finely  ground  straw  which  did  not  require  to  be 
chewed  was  considerably  better  utilised  than  the 
chaff.  The  decrease  in  productive  value  was,  in 
fact,  on  an  average  50%  greater  in  the  case  of  the 
chopped  straw  than  in  the  case  of  the  finely  ground 
straw.  The  improvement  due  to  grinding  was 
greater  with  the  wheat  straw  than  with  the  barley 
or  oat  straw,  and  experiments  with  wheat  chaff 
showed  that  the  limit  of  improvement  is  reached 
when  the  particles  of  ground  straw  are  about  as 
large  as  in  the  chaff.  As  the  grinding  of  the  straw 
only  partly  reduced  the  bad  results  noticed  in  the 
case  where  it  was  chopped,  there  must  be  some 
other  cause  in  addition  to  the  difficulty  of  mastica- 
tion. Experiments  where  sawdust  was  added 
to  the  ration  have  indeed  shown  that  this  slightly 
digestible  material  depresses  the  digestibility  of 
the  other  food'. 


METABOLISM   AND   FOOD  87 

As  a  third  cause  for  the  diminished  utilisation 
of  the  more  indigestible  feeding-stuffs,  regard 
must  be  paid  to  the  processes  of  decomposition 
which  go  on  in  the  intestines.  There  many  com- 
ponents of  the  food  are  so  far  decomposed  that 
they  can  serve  for  the  production  of  heat,  but 
not  for  the  formation  of  flesh  or  fat.  It  is  usual 
to  regard  the  difference  between  food  and  dung  as 
being  digested,  but  in  the  case  of  difficultly  digest- 
ible food,  a  portion  is  not  really  digested,  but  has 
undergone  putrefaction.  In  certain  cases  food  con- 
stituents, such  as  organic  acids,  which  have  no  value 
for  the  formation  of  new  tissue,  may  also  partially 
account  for  the  inferiority  of  the  digested  substances. 

It  is  therefore  quite  clear  that  the  amount  of 
work  required  for  mastication  and  digestion,  as 
well  as  the  extent  of  putrefaction  in  the  partially 
digested  food,  must  be  closely  connected  with  the 
hardness  and  digestibility  of  the  food  material.  When 
it  is  considered  what  components  of  the  food  deter- 
mine its  hardness  and  digestibility,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  quantity  of  crude  fibre  takes  the  first 
place.  The  digestible  crude  fibre  is  of  itself  equal  in 
nutritive  value  to  starch,  but  the  work  of  mastication 
and  of  digestion,  and  also  the  putrefactive  changes  in 
the  intestines,  fall  not  upon  this  portion  alone,  but 
upon  the  whole  of  the  crude  fibre  consumed.  The 
richer  the  straw  or  hay  is  in  crude  fibre,  the  less 
must  be  the  amount  of  the  digested  substances  of 


88     SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

the  food  which  is  utilised.  Proof  of  this  is  to  be 
found  in  the  details  of  the  investigation  carried  out 
with  the  nine  coarse  fodders  (p.  85).  The  dry 
matter  of  the  four  varieties  of  straw  contained  on 
the  average  417%  crude  fibre,  whilst  in  the  five 
varieties  of  hay  it  was  30-1  %.  The  digested  materials 
of  the  straw  gave  an  average  of  55%  less  body  fat 
than  would  have  been  formed  if  they  had  acted 
like  pure,  isolated  materials.  With  the  hay  there 
was  an  average  of  45*6%  less  body  fat.  The  straw, 
which  was  richer  in  crude  fibre,  yielded  according 
to  this  17%  less  body  fat  than  the  hay,  which  did 
not  contain  so  much  crude  fibre. 

From  these  investigations  it  is  computed  that 
100  gr.  of  crude  fibre  depressed  the  fat  production 
I4*3  gr- — sucn  a  deficit  as  could  be  balanced  by 
the  addition  *  of  58  gr.  starch  for  each  100  gr.  of 
crude  fibre  consumed.  With  various  chaffs  of  the 
nature  of  wheat  chaff,  the  depression  is  only  half  of 
that  given  above. 

As  regards  the  green  fodders,  it  is  easy  to  see 
that  it  is  much  easier  to  masticate  them  in  that 
condition  than  when  dried.  An  experiment  where 
meadow  hay  and  green  lucerne  were  fed  to  a  horse 
confirmed  this,  for  during  the  consumption  of  the 
green  food  38  %  less  energy  was  used  in  mastication 
than  when  the  same  quantity  of  dry  matter  was 
eaten  in  the  form  of  meadow  hay.     Tender  fodder 

*   100  gr.  starch  =  24*8  gr.  body  fat. 


METABOLISM    AND    FOOD  89 

plants  without  much  stem  give  a  hay  which  is 
easily  broken  up,  and  it  has  been  found  by  direct 
experiment  that  to  masticate  it  no  more  work  is 
required  than  is  the  case  with  the  same  food  in  a 
green  condition.  The  more  the  plants  advance  in 
growth,  the  richer  do  they  become  in  crude  fibre, 
and  when  they  are  over-ripe  differ  very  little  in 
food  value  from  hay  which  has  been  made  from 
them  without  loss.  If  the  energy  required  for 
mastication  and  digestion  of  the  crude  fibre  were 
expressed  as  starch,  it  would  be  found  that  more 
energy  is  required  in  the  case  of  woody  green 
fodder  than  with  young  grass  or  clover.  Green 
plants  which  contain  16%  or  more  of  crude  fibre 
would  have  to  receive  an  addition  of  58  gr.  of 
starch  for  each  100  gr.  consumed.  If  the  amount 
of  crude  fibre  were  only  4%,  then  half  the  above 
quantity  of  starch  (29  gr.)  would  be  necessary,  and 
in  the  same  way  34  gr.  of  starch  for  6%  crude  fibre, 
38  gr.  for  8%,  43  gr.  for  10%,  48  gr.  for  12%,  and 
53  gr.  for  14%. 

It  has  been  previously  shown  that  there  are 
food-stuffs  whose  digestible  portion  acts  exactly 
as  the  corresponding  nutrient  in  a  pure  form.  If 
these  pure  nutrients  were  fed  in  finely  divided 
condition,  it  is  certain  that  they,  would  cause  the 
greatest  production  of  which  the  animal  is  capable, 
and  the  food-stuffs  whose  digestible  components 
show  this  maximum  value  are  said  to  possess  "  full 


go     SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

value."  In  order  to  express  this  in  figures,  the  full- 
value  feeding-stuffs  can  be  called  ioo  and  the  less 
valuable  ones  receive  a  number  below  ioo  depending 
upon  their  value.  When  in  Table  I  of  the  Appendix 
it  is  seen,  for  example,  that  the  value  of  barley  straw 
is  46,  it  means  that  100  gr.  of  the  digested  material 
of  the  straw  when  added  to  a  maintenance  ration 
only  cause  an  increase  of  fat  equal  to  that  which 
46  gr.  of  the  same  nutrients  in  pure,  finely  divided 
form  would  give.  Substances  which  depress  the 
action  of  the  other  foods  are  marked  with  a  -  sign, 
e.g.  sawdust  from  pinewood  has  a  value  of  -  22. 
This  means  that  the  j-8  gr.  of  nitrogen-free  extract 
and  the  6-9  gr.  of  crude  fibre,  in  all  14-7  gr.  nitro- 
gen-free extract,  which  are  digested  from  100  gr. 
of  pine  sawdust,  not  only  have  no  nutritive  value, 
but  reduce  the  action  of  the  other  food  by  22%  of 
the  amount  which  would  be  obtained  if  the  nutrients 
of  the  sawdust  were  of  full  value. 

In  the  100  gr.  sawdust  147  gr.  are  digestible,  and 
22%  of  this  is  3-2  gr.,  so  the  addition  of  the  saw- 
dust acts  as  though  3-2  gr.  of  starch  had  been  taken 
from  the  food  instead  of  sawdust  being  added. 

By  means  of  this  "  quantitative  number  "  exact 
expression  is  given  to  the  action  of  the  digestible 
materials  contained  in  each  food-stuff.  Further 
investigations  have  shown  that  the  coarsely  ground 
cereal  grains  without  husks,  and  feeding-meals 
free  from  chaff  or  bran,  are  of  full  value.     The 


METABOLISM   AND    FOOD  91 

husked  grains  (oats,  barley)  and  the  leguminous 
seeds  have  a  less  value  on  account  of  the  husks  and 
chaff.  All  those  by-products  from  which  the 
inner  nutritious  portion  of  the  grain  has  been  with- 
drawn by  grinding  or  mashing,  e.g.  brans,  barley 
refuse,  brewers'  grains,  slumps,  etc.,  have  proved  to 
be  of  low  value. 

Amongst  potatoes,  turnips,  and  similar  foods, 
the  former  have  proved  to  be  of  full  value,  whereas 
mangels  and  their  by-products  are  not.  The 
digestible  nutrients  in  the  different  food-stuffs 
therefore  differ  considerably  in  value.  If  attention 
is  not  paid  to  this  important  fact  and  the  rations 
are  calculated  as  formerly  on  the  amount  of  digest- 
ible material  which  they  contain,  very  serious 
errors  can  be  made.  In  view  of  what  has  just  been 
said,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  value  of  the 
nutrients  should  enter  into  the  calculation.  This 
is  done  most  suitably  and  easily  if  the  amount  of 
full-value  nutrients  which  the  food-stuff  contains 
is  reckoned  with  the  help  of  the  "  value  "  number. 
If,  however,  such  a  calculation  were  to  be  made 
for  each  group  of  nutrients,  a  clear  estimate  of  the 
productive  value  of  many  feeding-stuffs  would  not 
be  obtained,  quite  apart  from  the  labour  of  such  a 
procedure.  The  writer  therefore  considers  it  best 
to  express  the  fat-forming  value  of  the  feeding-stuffs 
by  a  single  number,  and  to  use  starch  as  a  standard. 
An   example   will   make   this   clear.     Suppose   an 


92     SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

experiment  with  ruminants  has  shown  that  ioo  kg. 
fairly  good  meadow  hay  forms  8  kg.  body  fat  when 
added  to  the  maintenance  ration.  In  a  similar 
experiment  where  starch  was  fed  instead  of  meadow 
hay  it  was  found  that  the  weight  of  fat  gained  was 
exactly  equal  to  quarter  of  the  weight  of  starch 
given.  If  the  8  kg.  fat  obtained  from  the  hay  be 
multiplied  by  4,  the  quantity  of  starch  which 
would  have  the  same  effect  as  100  kg.  of  the  hay  is 
obtained,  that  is,  32.  This  figure  32  is  then  the 
starch  equivalent  of  the  meadow  hay.  This  does  not 
in  any  way  mean  that  the  meadow  hay  contained 
32%  starch,  but  expresses  the  food  value  of  the 
hay  compared  to  the  starch.  When,  therefore,  it 
is  seen  in  Table  I  of  the  Appendix  that  winter 
cereal  straw  has  a  starch  equivalent  of  11-5,  summer 
cereal  straw  18-8,  potatoes  19,  rye  bran  46-9, 
barley  72,  and  flax  seed  119-2,  the  meaning  will  be 
clear.  How  far  these  figures  are  applicable  in  the  pro- 
duction of  energy  or  milk,  or  how  they  apply  to  horses 
and  pigs,  will  be  discussed  later.  The  method  of  esti- 
mating the  starch  equivalents  or  values  of  different 
feeding-stuffs  will  also  be  treated  later  in  the  intro- 
duction to  the  Tables  for  the  calculation  of  rations. 

In  digestion,  in  the  formation  of  flesh,  and,  as 
will  be  subsequently  seen,  in  the  production  of  milk, 
the  digestible  protein  plays  a  very  important  part,  so 
the  mere  giving  of  the  starch  equivalent  will  not 
suffice  to  fully  express  the  nutritive  value  of  a  food- 


METABOLISM    AND    FOOD  93 

stuff.  In  Tables  I  and  III  of  the  Appendix  the 
amount  of  digestible  protein  in  the  food  is  also  given. 
It  must  not  be  forgotten  though  that  the  starch  value 
also  includes  the  effect  which  the  protein  has  in 
common  with  the  starch.  It  would  not  be  correct 
to  include  only  nitrogen-free  substances  in  the 
starch  equivalent,  for  in  very  many  cases  the  greater 
part  of  the  food  protein  is  not  used  for  the  forma- 
tion of  flesh,  but  utilised  in  the  same  way  as  the 
nitrogen-free  nutrients . 

(h)  The  effect  of  mineral  substances. 

When  an  animal  is  burnt,  ash  is  left  which  con- 
tains, as  does  the  ash  of  the  plant,  potash,  soda, 
lime,  magnesia,  oxide  of  iron,  phosphoric  and  sul- 
phuric acids,  chlorine,  etc.  These  materials  are  not 
unimportant,  but  are  an  absolute  necessity,  as  has 
been  proved  by  experiments  in  which  food  lacking 
in  them  was  given.  It  was  found  that  under  these 
conditions  the  animals  constantly  lost  mineral 
substances,  such  as  phosphoric  acid  and  lime;  in 
one  case  lambs  were  found  to  lose  0-5  gr.  phosphoric 
acid  and  1-2  gr.  of  lime  per  head  per  day.  If 
feeding  with  food  poor  in  mineral  substances  is 
continued  for  some  length  of  time,  appearances  of 
disease  are  to  be  seen  in  consequence  of  the  loss  of 
mineral  substances  from  the  body.  The  symptoms 
as  a  rule  are  great  weakness  in  the  legs,  trembling 


94     SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

of  the  muscles,  cramp,  and  excitability,  whilst 
death  follows  sooner  than  if  the  animal  had  had  no 
food  at  all.  The  mineral  substances  of  the  body 
undergo  metabolism  just  as  do  the  protein  and  fat, 
only  to  a  less  extent,  for  they  are  a  necessary  part 
of  the  organism,  and  must  be  given  to  growing 
animals,  whose  organs  are  increasing,  in  larger 
quantities  than  when  growth  has  ceased.  As  to 
the  exact  part  which  the  various  mineral  substances 
play  there  is  not  yet  any  very  exact  knowledge. 
The  following  are  the  most  important  facts  known — 
(a)  Potash  and  soda. — Potassium  is  found  princi- 
pally in  the  cell  walls,  muscles,  and  blood  corpuscles. 
Sodium,  on  the  other  hand,  in  the  blood,  lymph, 
saliva,  gastric  juice,  etc.  The  value  of  potassium  for 
the  changes  which  take  place  in  the  body  is  not  yet 
known,  but  sodium  combined  with  chlorine  is  present 
as  common  salt,  and  there  are  indications  that  it 
prevents  swelling  up  of  the  cells,  assists  the  passage 
of  many  substances  through  the  cells,  dissolves 
some  proteins,  and  forms  hydrochloric  acid  and 
soda  in  the  digestive  juices.  When  salt  is  taken  in 
moderate  quantities  it  appears  to  favour  the  putting 
on  of  flesh,  but  in  excess  it  increases  the  quantity  of 
water  drunk,  and  causes  all  those  drawbacks  which 
are  associated  with  a  too  liberal  consumption  of 
water  (p.  101).  The  ordinary  feeding-stuffs  and 
drinking-water  contain,  as  a  rule,  so  much  sodium 
and  chlorine  that  if  no  salt  is  given  the  vital  functions 


METABOLISM    AND    FOOD  95 

still  proceed  regularly.  Animals  which  are  giving 
milk  are,  however,  exceptions  to  this,  and  they 
ought  to  be  given  some  salt  to  replace  the  chlorine 
taken  away  in  the  milk.  Milch  cattle  after  being 
two  or  three  weeks  without  salt  begin  to  show 
great  craving  for  it ;  they  gnaw  the  manger  and  the 
walls,  lick  the  hands  and  clothes  of  those  attending 
them,  and  even  eat  refuse  and  dung.  No  change 
is  to  be  noticed  in  their  appearance  or  weight,  nor 
does  the  yield  of  milk  decrease.  This  condition 
can  continue  for  some  weeks  or  even  for  a  year, 
depending  upon  the  animal  and  the  quantity  of 
milk  given,  but  finally  the  appetite  decreases,  the 
eyes  become  dull,  the  coat  "  stares,"  and  the 
animal  becomes  very  weak  and  thin.  If  salt  is  now 
given  recovery  quickly  begins,  but  if  not,  weakness 
continues,  and  generally  death  follows,  about  time 
of  calving.  These  phenomena  are  due  to  the  lack 
of  chlorine,  not  of  sodium,  for  it  has  been  found  that 
improvement  and  recovery  follow  if  potassium 
chloride  is  added  to  the  food. 

Common  salt  finally  possesses,  in  a  very  high 
degree,  the  properties  of  a  spice  ;  it  improves  the 
appetite  and  makes  many  feeding-stuffs  palatable 
which,  without  salt,  would  not  be  readily  eaten.  It 
further  increases  the  flow  of  digestive  juices  (p.  40), 
promotes  activity  of  the  circulation,  and  prevents 
disturbances  of  the  digestive  apparatus,  so  a  de- 
ficiency in  the  food  should  not  occur. 


96     SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF    ANIMALS 

(0)  Lime,  magnesia,  and  phosphoric  acid. — These 
substances  are  found  in  the  greatest  quantities  in 
the  bones.  They  are  also  used  up  in  the  body,  so 
that  if  the  food  does  not  contain  sufficient  to  make 
up  for  the  losses  in  dung  or  urine,  the  animal  has  to 
draw  upon  its  own  skeleton.  Under  some  condi- 
tions the  mineral  substances  of  the  bones  may  be 
drawn  upon  to  such  an  extent  that  the  latter 
become  porous  and  brittle.  Where  the  soil  is 
deficient  in  lime  and  phosphoric  acid  and  this 
deficiency  is  not  made  good  by  manures,  the  bones 
may  become  permanently  brittle,  for  the  fodder 
plants  are  not  able  to  take  up  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  mineral  substances  for  the  requirements  of  the 
animal.  This  diseased  condition  of  the  bones  is 
particularly  prevalent  in  dry  years,  because  owing 
to  the  lack  of  moisture  in  the  soil  less  lime  and 
phosphoric  acid  enter  the  roots.  Soft  water  poor  in 
lime  also  favours  this  disease,  whilst  insufficient  or 
acid  food,  digestive  disturbances,  etc.,  can  hasten 
its  course.  In  young,  growing  animals  these 
diseased  conditions,  due  to  the  lack  of  lime  and 
phosphoric  acid,  develop  more  rapidly  than  with 
full-grown  ones.  Puppies,  particularly  those  of  the 
larger  breeds,  when  fed  on  meat  free  from  bone  and 
potatoes  or  rice,  show  after  a  few  weeks  signs  of 
pain  when  they  move,  later  even  when  they  lie. 
The  ends  of  the  bones  and  of  the  ribs  are  swollen, 
the  legs  and  bones  of  the  back  bend,  the  teeth  re- 


METABOLISM   AND   FOOD  97 

main  small,  and  finally  the  animal  is  unable  to  move. 
On  examining  the  bones  of  such  miserably  grown 
animals  it  is  seen  that  the  parts,  notably  on  the 
ends  of  the  joints,  are  composed  of  soft  cartilage 
in  which  lime  and  phosphoric  acid  are  only  slightly 
deposited.  Animals  in  this  condition  are  said  to  be 
suffering  from  softening  of  the  bones  or  osteo- 
malacia, in  children  known  as  rickets.  Amongst 
domestic  animals,  young  pigs  fed  upon  potatoes, 
whey,  maize,  and  cereal  grains,  and  so  not  obtaining 
enough  lime  in  the  food,  are  most  liable  to  suffer. 
This  softening  of  the  bones  is  found  less  frequently 
in  young  cattle,  horses,  or  sheep,  for  the  hay  and 
other  fodder  which  they  get  generally  contains 
sufficient  phosphoric  acid  and  lime.  Amongst 
grown  animals  the  females  are  more  liable  to 
brittleness  of  the  bones,  for  they  have  to  supply 
the  foetus  with  mineral  substances  in  addition  to 
the  phosphoric  acid  and  lime  that  go  into  the  milk. 
It  is  essential  then  in  feeding  to  pay  attention  to 
these  points,  and  to  provide  a  sufficient  supply  of 
both  these  substances  in  the  food. 

Feeding-stuffs  which  are  deficient  in  lime  are 
the  straw  and  chaff  of  cereals,  cereals  and  their 
by-products,  such  as  brans  and  meals,  malt  coombs, 
and  also  roots  and  molasses.  On  the  other  hand, 
foods  which  contain  a  good  supply  of  lime  are 
clovers,  meadow  hay,  and  many  leguminous  seeds. 
With  regard  to  deficiency  in  phosphoric  acid,  the 

H 


98     SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

following  foods  are  to  be  noted — straw  and  chaff 
of  cereals,  pulped  mangels  and  potatoes,  distillery 
refuse,  molasses ;  whilst  cereal  grains,  bran,  malt 
coombs,  brewers'  grains,  oil  cakes,  flesh  and  fish 
by-products,  are  rich  in  this  substance.  Only  one- 
third  to  one-half  of  the  phosphoric  acid  and  lime 
can  be  taken  from  vegetable  foods  by  animals,  so 
that  two  to  three  times  as  much  material  must  be 
given  as  can  be  stored  in  the  body.  Further  in- 
formation on  this  subject,  will  be  given  in  Part  III. 

If  the  amount  of  lime  and  phosphoric  acid  in  the 
food  is  not  sufficient,  it  can  be  increased  by  the 
addition  of  phosphate  of  lime.  In  many  cases 
there  is  only  a  lack  of  lime,  so  that  chalk,  which  is 
cheaper,  can  be  used,  instead  of  the  phosphate. 
Sometimes,  especially  when  mangels  are  much  used, 
the  bones  for  some  unknown  reason  become  brittle, 
in  spite  of  the  addition  of  lime  and  phosphoric  acid. 
Those  food-stuffs,  such  as  cereal  grains  and  oil 
cakes,  which  are  rich  in  lecithine  (p.  8)  are 
particularly  beneficial  for  the  growth  of  bone.  It 
is  not  improbable  that  a  deficiency  of  lecithine  in 
the  food  has  also  something  to  do  with  diseases  of 
the  bones. 

(y)  Iron. — Lack  of  iron  compounds  in  the  food 
causes  anaemia,  a  disease,  however,  very  seldom 
met  with  in  domestic  animals.  It  has  been  noticed 
in  sheep  and  in  pregnant  animals,  but  ordinary 
foods  contain  more  iron  than  an  animal  requires. 


METABOLISM   AND    FOOD  99 

(i)  The  effect  of  water. 

Water  plays  a  very  important  part  in  the  animal 
economy.  Its  first  duty  is  to  facilitate  the  chewing 
and  swallowing  of  the  food.  In  the  processes  of 
digestion  and  in  the  absorption  of  the  soluble  sub- 
stances in  the  body  water  is  again  necessary,  for 
solutions  which  are  too  concentrated  do  not  pene- 
trate the  walls  of  the  alimentary  canal,  but  rather 
draw  water  from  them.  This  causes  increased 
movement  of  the  intestine  (peristalsis)  and  its 
premature  evacuation.  Water  serves  further  as 
a  transporter  of  the  nutrients  in  the  blood  and 
lymph  vessels  and  for  the  excretion  of  the  final 
products  of  metabolism.  It  is  connected  also 
with  the  loss  of  heat  from  the  body,  for  by  its 
evaporation,  either  from  the  skin  or  lungs,  there  is 
a  considerable  lowering  of  the  temperature.  In 
this  way  an  excess  of  heat,  which  is  always  the 
result  of  high  feeding  or  hard,  muscular  work,  is 
prevented,  for  this  might  otherwise  lead  to  a  fatal 
overheating  of  the  body  if  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
water  were  not  there. 

A  lack  of  water,  it  will  then  be  understood, 
would  cause  all  sorts  of  disturbances  both  in  the 
metabolism  of  the  food  and  in  the  general  condition 
of  the  animal.  Observations  on  men  and  on 
different  animals  have  shown  that  when  too  little 
water  is  taken  the  gastric  digestion  and  the  passage 


ioo  SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

of  the  digested  substances  into  the  blood  and 
lymph  are  hindered.  The  final  nitrogenous  pro- 
ducts of  metabolism  are  also  not  excreted  suffi- 
ciently rapidly,  and  are  retained  in  the  body. 
Where  there  is  a  continued  lack  of  water,  the 
blood  gradually  thickens  and  the  temperature  of 
the  body  rises.  In  this  condition,  which  is  similar 
to  that  of  fever,  the  protein  and  fat  metabolism 
increases,  and  continues  to  exist  until  by  ingestion 
of  water  the  normal  quantity  found  in  the  body 
is  again  reached.  Young,  growing  animals  can 
easily  be  injured  in  their  development  by  even  a 
moderate  lack  of  water,  or  by  irregular  watering. 
If  the  supply  of  fluids  continues  to  be  insufficient 
for  an  animal,  then  with  increasing  thirst  the  desire 
for  solid  food  decreases,  and  is  usually  followed  by 
vomiting  and  violent  purging,  the  latter  symptom 
often  being  observed  when  water  is  given  after 
long  periods  of  thirst.  Complete  withdrawal  of 
food  is,  for  the  reasons  given  above,  better  with- 
stood than  is  complete  withdrawal  of  water. 

There  is  little  fear  of  animals  receiving  too  much 
water  unless  they  are  given  excessive  quantities  of 
watery  foods,  or,  through  the  consumption  of  salt, 
are  forced  to  drink  too  much.  In  ordinary  feeding 
practice,  where  animals  are  allowed  to  drink  as 
much  water  as  they  wish,  the  quantity  relative  to 
the  dry  matter  consumed  is  fairly  constant.  It  has 
been  found  that  for  i  kilo  of  dry  matter  in  the  food 


METABOLISM    AND    FOOD  101 

pigs  take  7-8,  cows  4-6,  oxen  4-5,  and  horses  2-3 
kilos  of  water.  Naturally  the  surrounding  tem- 
perature has  a  considerable  influence  on  these 
quantities,  for  the  heat  of  the  body  is  lowered  in 
hot  weather  by  evaporation  of  water  from  the 
surface  of  the  skin.  In  cold  weather  or  in  cold 
surroundings  the  evaporation  of  water  is  much 
reduced. 

If  the  amount  of  water  consumed  is  continually 
above  that  which  is  necessary,  then  the  tissues 
become  of  a  soft,  flabby  nature  owing  to  the  storage 
of  fluid  in  them  ;  animals  in  this  condition  are  less 
resistant  to  injurious  influences  or  disease.  Further, 
when  the  body  is  over-supplied  with  water,  the 
food  is  not  so  well  utilised  owing  to  the  digestive 
juices  being  too  dilute  (see  Chap.  VI),  and  it  is  also 
found  that  the  metabolism  of  the  food  is  increased 
by  an  excessive  supply  of  water.  The  water  con- 
tained in  green  fodder,  roots,  tubers,  etc.,  the  so- 
called  water  of  vegetation,  is  said  curiously  enough 
to  exercise  a  favourable  influence  upon  the  con- 
sumption of  protein.  It  has  been  observed  that 
the  protein  of  green  foods  causes  more  increase  of 
tissue  than  does  the  protein  of  hay,  which  may  have 
been  prepared  from  the  same  plants  without  loss. 
These  differences  may  perhaps,  however,  only  be 
due  to  the  fact  that  mastication  of  the  green  food 
involves  less  work  than  for  the  hay,  which  would 
leave   more   protein  for   the  production   of   flesh. 


102   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

Another  factor  must  also  be  considered,  and  it  is 
that  green  plants  lose  a  certain  amount  of  nitrogen- 
free  substance  by  respiration  when  dried  in  the  air ; 
at  the  same  time  there  is  a  change  of  protein  into 
amides  or  similar  substances  whose  nutritive  value 
is  not  that  of  protein  (p.  65).  It  is  very  doubtful 
then  if  the  water  of  vegetation  has  any  of  the  effect 
ascribed  to  it. 

When  drinking-water  is  taken  into  the  body  it 
has  to  be  raised  to  the  temperature  of  the  blood, 
and  that  requires  more  or  less  heat  according  to 
the  temperature  of  the  water.  Under  some  condi- 
tions food  may  have  to  be  split  up  to  supply  the 
heat  necessary  to  warm  the  water,  and  so  there  is 
less  available  for  production.  Well-fed  animals, 
ruminants  for  instance,  generally  produce  more 
heat  than  they  require ;  and  in  this  case  the  intro- 
duction of  cold  water,  especially  if  given  in  small 
quantities,  as  is  done  where  the  animal  can  help 
itself,  occasions  no  increased  food  metabolism. 
Where  animals  are  getting  only  a  maintenance 
ration,  the  consumption  of  cold  water  may  cause 
an  increased  use  of  nutrients  for  the  production  of 
heat.  Pigs,  which  quickly  lose  heat  owing  to 
their  thin  covering  of  hair,  may  have  to  utilise  some 
of  their  food  material  for  the  production  of  heat, 
if  they  are  given  a  lot  of  cold,  wet  food.  The 
custom  of  giving  pigs  and  cows  a  portion  of  the  food 
in  warm  drinks  is  quite  sound,  and  drinking-water 


METABOLISM    AND    FOOD  103 

may  also  be  slightly  warmed — a  temperature  of 
10-150  C.  (50-600  F.)  is  about  right.  Cold  water 
and  food  not  only  lower  the  production,  but  can 
also  cause  disturbance  of  health. 

There  ought  to  be  little  need  to  mention  here 
that  the  drinking-water  for  animals  should  be 
almost  as  carefully  chosen  as  for  human  beings. 


CHAPTER   V 

THE    UTILISATION    OF    FOOD    AND    ENERGY    IN    MUS- 
CULAR WORK — LAWS  OF  PRODUCTION  OF  ENERGY 

(i)    The  sources  of  muscular  energy, 
(a)    Protein  as  a  source  of  muscular  energy. 

SOME  of  the  many  investigations  which  have 
been  carried  out  on  dogs  and  men  have 
shown  that  even  during  hard  work  the  quantity 
of  protein  metabolised  was  not  much  in  excess  of 
that  during  rest.  In  other  cases  an  increase,  which 
was  sometimes  quite  considerable,  was  observed 
during  work.  Sometimes,  too,  but  this  was  ex- 
ceptional, the  performance  of  work  resulted  in  an 
increased  metabolism  of  nitrogen-free  substances. 
In  all  these  investigations  the  time  during  which 
they  were  carried  out  was  only  short,  so  that  the 
energy  which  had  been  stored  up  whilst  the  animal 
was  at  rest  was  possibly  sufficient  to  provide  for 
the  extra  work.  The  matter  was  first  placed  in  a 
clear  light  when  the  work  was  allowed  to  go  on  for 
a  longer  period,  as  was  done  in  the  following  ex- 

104 


UTILISATION  OF  FOOD  AND  ENERGY   105 

periment  on  a  horse.  The  animal  received,  during 
the  whole  time,  a  food  which  was  very  rich  in 
protein  (7-5  kilos  meadow  hay  and  4  kilos  beans), 
and  during  the  first  part  of  the  experiment  it  had 
only  light  work  to  perform.  The  average  amount  of 
nitrogen  found  in  the  urine  daily  was  198-6  gr.  for 
a  period  of  fourteen  days.  The  work  was  then 
trebled  and  represented  a  hard  day's  work.  During 
the  twenty-four  days  this  part  of  the  experiment 
lasted  the  daily  excretion  of  nitrogen  rose  until  it 
reached  243-3  gr.,  an  increase  of  447  gr.,  which  is 
equal  to  280  gr.  protein  or  flesh.  The  live  weight 
of  the  horse  sank  in  this  time  from  496-8  to  458-0 
kilos,  which  is  a  decrease  of  38-8  kilos.  When,  at 
the  conclusion  of  this  period  of  increased  work,  a 
return  was  made  to  the  original  light  work,  the 
excretion  of  nitrogen  sank  to  the  original  amount. 
The  extra  work  had  therefore  caused  an  increase 
in  the  nitrogen  excreted.  Where  only  light  work 
was  being  performed  the  food  sufficed,  but  when 
the  former  was  trebled  the  food  was  no  longer 
sufficient,  and  body  tissue  (fat  and  flesh)  had  to  be 
consumed.  As  long  as  there  was  plenty  of  fat 
present  this  would  be  drawn  upon  and  furnish 
energy,  but  the  less  the  reserve  of  fat  became,  so 
much  more  would  the  body  protein  be  called  upon 
to  supply  energy  for  the  purposes  of  muscular  work. 
The  protein  was  thus  capable  of  furnishing  part  of 
the  energy  demanded  by  the  animal. 


106   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

(b)    The  nitrogen-free  nutrients  (fats  and  carbo- 
hydrates) as  a  source  of  muscular  energy. 

Whenever  comparisons  were  made  with  animals, 
of  whatever  species,  it  was  always  found  that  the 
performance  of  work  caused  a  considerable  increase 
in  the  excretion  of  carbon  dioxide,  even  where  no 
more  protein  was  split  up  than  when  the  animal 
was  at  rest.  This  shows  at  once  that  the  nitrogen- 
free  substances  must  take  part  in  the  production 
of  muscular  energy,  for  the  energy  which  an  animal 
requires  for  the  performance  of  work  can  only  come 
from  the  decomposition  of  substances  in  the  body. 
If  it  is  found  that  during  work  an  animal  uses 
only  small  amounts  of  protein  but  more  nitrogen- 
free  substances  than  when  at  rest,  it  is  safe  to  con- 
clude that  the  energy  comes,  at  least  partially,  from 
the  extra  nitrogen-free  substances.  Numerous  in- 
vestigations lead  to  the  same  conclusion,  and  a  few 
examples  of  the  results  obtained  with  horses  may 
be  quoted  here. 

I.  In  the  experiment  just  quoted,  where  the 
animal  received  a  ration  (hay  and  beans)  rich  in 
proteins,  more  and  more  of  these  were  split  up, 
until  at  the  end  280  gr.  more  per  day  were  decom- 
posed than  during  light  work.  When  the  same 
animal  was  given  a  ration  (hay  and  maize)  poor 
in  protein  but  richer  to  about  three  kilos  in  fats 
and  carbohydrates,  the  excretion  of  nitrogen  and 
the  body  weight  remained  unaltered  whether  the 


UTILISATION  OF  FOOD  AND  ENERGY   107 

daily  work  was  light  or  increased  threefold.  The 
food  rich  in  carbohydrates  had  sufficed  for  the  pro- 
duction of  the  energy  required  for  the  hard  work. 

II.  The  same  animal  was  given  a  ration  rather 
poor  in  protein  and  afterwards  the  same  ration 
to  which  one  kilo  of  starch  was  added.  Whilst  on 
these  rations  the  animal  had  to  perform  hard  work, 
which  was  gradually  decreased  until  the  excretion 
of  nitrogen  remained  constant  and  did  not  decrease. 
In  this  way  the  maximum  work  which  could  be  per- 
formed on  the  two  rations  without  calling  upon 
body  protein  was  determined.  The  results  showed 
that  by  the  addition  of  starch  the  animal  was  able 
to  perform  considerably  more  work. 

III.  A  similar  experiment  was  carried  out  with 
the  addition  of  linseed  oil  to  the  basal  ration,  and 
it  was  found  that  the  food  to  which  oil  had  been 
added  yielded  more  energy  than  food  without. 

These  investigations  show  that  carbohydrates  and 
fats  are  a  source  of  muscular  energy,  and  also  under 
what  conditions  the  animal  draws  upon  its  body 
protein  to  obtain  energy.  This  happens  only  when 
the  total  quantity  of  nutrients  in  the  food,  together 
with  the  body  fat,  do  not  suffice  to  yield  the  neces- 
sary energy.  In  such  a  case  the  animal  is  not 
getting  enough  food  and  draws  upon  its  own  tissues. 
Under  the  usual  conditions  of  feeding  the  nitrogen- 
free  nutrients  (carbohydrates  and  fats)  of  the  food 
are  the  chief  sources  of  energy,  the  protein  only 


io8   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

undergoing  decomposition  to  the  same  extent  as 
when  the  animal  is  completely  at  rest. 

If  the  materials  in  the  food  do  not  yield  enough 
energy  for  the  work  which  the  animal  is  performing, 
the  body  fat  is  drawn  upon,  and  when  this  reaches 
a  certain  minimum  the  protein  has  to  supply  the 
rest  of  the  energy  required. 

All  those  organic  substances  capable  of  yielding 
dynamic  energy  (p.  57),  whether  coming  from  the 
food  or  from  the  body  fat  or  protein,  are  the  source 
of  muscular  energy. 

(c)  Storage  of  protein  in  consequence  of  muscular  work. 

The  food  does  not  alone  determine  the  quantity 
of  work  that  an  animal  can  perform.  The  muscular 
system,  which  is  the  apparatus  for  the  performance 
of  work,  must  also  be  properly  grown.  A  man 
whose  muscles  are  feebly  developed  cannot  perform 
as  much  work  as  a  robust  man  would  do  on  the 
same  diet.  If,  however,  a  man,  still  capable  of 
development,  is  obliged  to  use  his  muscles  regularly, 
they  become  stronger  and  increase  in  size  with  the 
daily  exercise.  In  consequence  of  such  conditions 
the  performance  of  work  can  lead  to  an  increase  of 
flesh,  as  has  been  satisfactorily  proved  in  numerous 
experiments. 

Experience  has  taught  that  for  the  proper  develop- 
ment of  young  cattle  sufficient  exercise,  that  is  the 
use  of  the  muscles,  is  necessary. 


UTILISATION  OF  FOOD  AND  ENERGY   109 


(2)  The  relation  between  metabolism  and  muscular 
work. 

It  has  been  shown  already  (p.  48)  that  each 
nutrient  brings  to  the  animal  a  certain  quantity  of 
utilisable  energy.  As  a  measure  of  this  energy  the 
quantity  of  heat  which  remains  after  deducting  that 
contained  in  the  excreta  is  taken.  It  is  usual 
to  express  this  quantity  of  energy  by  a  certain 
number  of  heat  units  or  calories.  The  metre- 
kilogram  (foot-pound  in  British  units)  is  taken  as 
the  standard  by  which  to  measure  the  work  of  an 
animal  or  a  machine,  and  is  the  quantity  of  energy 
necessary  to  raise  one  kilo  one  metre  high  (or  one 
pound  one  foot  high). 

From  exact  experiments  it  has  been  satisfactorily 
ascertained  that  the  energy  of  one  large  calorie  (Cal.) 
in  its  transformation  into  kinetic  energy  can  per- 
form 425  metre-kilograms  work. 

If  an  animal  were  able  to  convert  all  the  available 
energy  contained  in  the  nutrients  into  muscular  work, 
one  kilo  starch,  which  brings  376  Cal.  into  the  body, 
would  be  able  to  yield  energy  for,  in  round  figures, 
1600  mkg.  work.  From  investigations  carried  out 
on  this  branch  of  the  subject  it  has  been  found  that 
only  one-third  of  the  available  energy  in  the  food 
is  obtained  in  the  form  of  utilisable  work.  In  ten 
different   experiments   on   a   man   who   performed 


no   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

work  by  mounting  stairs,  the  proportion  was  from 
28-1-36-6%-- an  average  of  33,:i:%-  In  experi- 
ments with  dogs  doing  draught  work  the  percentage 
of  energy  utilised  was  28-8,  and  when  the  dog  was 
ascending  and  so  performing  work,  it  rose  to  307%. 
In  eighteen  experiments  with  a  horse,  it  was  found 
that  when  turning  a  capstan  at  a  walk  the  percentage 
was  29-38%.  As  it  is  known  that  from  a  steam 
engine  of  the  best  construction  it  is  only  possible 
to  get  15  %  of  the  energy  of  the  steam  in  the  form 
of  utilisable  work,  it  is  easy  to  see  how  perfectly  the 
animal  organism  utilises  the  energy  which  is  brought 
to  it.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  work  that 
any  animal  does  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word 
is  not  the  total  energy  that  is  obtained  from  the 
nutrients.  Another  portion  is  utilised  for  the  per- 
formance of  the  internal  work  of  the  body — in- 
creased activity  of  the  muscles  of  the  heart,  organs 
of  respiration,  etc.  When  the  amount  of  energy 
used  in  living  muscle  which  has  been  cut  from  the 
body  is  determined,  it  is  found  that  half  goes  to 
perform  real  work,  whilst  the  other  half  takes  the 
form  of  heat. 

From  one  gram  of  pure  isolated  nutrient  rumi- 
nants obtain  after  deduction  of  all  losses  the  follow- 
ing amounts  of  energy — from  carbohydrates  37-6, 
from  fat  8-57,  and  from  protein  4-63  Cal.  As  only 
one-third  of  this  energy  is  available  for  muscular 
work,   one    grm.   of  pure   carbohydrate  will  yield 


UTILISATION  OF  FOOD  AND  ENERGY   in 

533  mkg.  of  work,  i  grm.  of  fat  1214  mkg.,  and 
from  the  same  quantity  of  protein  656  mkg.  The 
quantity  of  food  nutrients  used  differs  according 
to  the  kind  of  work  and  also  to  the  rate  at  which 
the  work  is  performed,  as  well  as  the  gradient.  It 
has  been  observed  that  the  material,  expressed  in 
starch  equivalent,  consumed  by  a  horse  weighing  500 
kilograms  when  going  at  the  rate  of  78  metres  per 
minute  was  43-3  grms.  If  the  speed  was  increased 
to  90  metres  per  minute  the  quantity  rose  to 
48-2  grms.,  whilst  at  98  metres  it  was  52-2  grms. 
When  a  comparison  was  made  between  the  work 
done  at  a  trot  (195  metres  per  minute)  and  at  a  walk 
(90  metres  per  minute),  it  was  found  that  41  %  more 
energy  was  expended  in  the  former  case.  If  the 
horse  carried  a  load  of  125  kilograms,  say  a  rider 
of  average  weight,  about  8%  more  energy  was 
used  when  the  rate  was  that  of  walking,  and  about 
10%  more  when  the  pace  was  that  of  a  trot  (186 
metres  per  minute)  than  when  no  load  was  carried. 

When  drawing  a  load  along  an  almost  horizontal 
surface  at  a  walk  31-3%  of  the  energy  which  the 
animal  obtained  from  its  food  was  used  in  the  form 
of  work.  Similar  work  performed  at  the  trot 
caused  no  appreciable  difference.  On  an  inclined 
surface  (8-5°  grade)  at  a  walk  the  utilisation  of  the 
energy  fell  to  227%. 

If  work  is  carried  on  to  the  point  of  fatigue,  the 
energy  necessary  for  the  performance  of  the  work 


ii2   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

increases  very  considerably.  Experiments  on  men 
have  shown  as  much  as  14-20%  increase.  The 
fact  of  being  accustomed  to  a  certain  kind  of  work 
has  also  considerable  influence,  for  according  to 
experiments  on  a  man  working  a  treadmill  the 
metabolism  after  twenty-two  days'  practice  de- 
creased by  10%,  the  work  remaining  the  same  ; 
whilst  after  fifty-six  days' practice  it  decreased  25%. 


PART   II 
THE    FEEDING-STUFFS: 

THEIR    PROPERTIES,    CONSERVATION,    PREPARATION, 
AND  APPLICABILITY 


r 


CHAPTER    I 

THE    NUTRIENT    CONTENTS,    PALATABLENESS,    AND 
DURABILITY   OF  THE   FEEDING-STUFFS. 

ONLY  those  materials  can  be  accounted  food- 
stuffs that  contain  organic  or  mineral  nutrients 
in  a  form  which  can  be  utilised  and  which,  within 
the  usual  limits  of  practice,  have  no  injurious 
action. 

Indigestible  materials,  such  as  peat,  ground 
leather,  powdered  coal,  sand,  earth,  etc.,  or  poison- 
ous substances  like  castor-oil  seed  meal,  poppy 
seeds,  poisonous  plants,  etc.,  further  such  sub- 
stances as  contain  injurious  bacteria,  are  not  food 
materials. 

Amongst  the  properties  which  determine  the 
value  of  a  feeding-stuff  the  first  place  is  taken  by 
the  variety,  quality,  and  action  of  the  digestible 
nutrients. 

A  glance  at  Table  I,  in  the  Appendix,  will  show 
that  great  differences  exist.  There  is  only  one  way 
in  which  information  regarding  these  properties  can 
be  obtained,  and  that  is  by  a  chemical  and  micro- 

i'5 


n6   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

scopical  examination.  The  first  gives  the  quantities 
of  crude  nutrients,  and  the  second  shows  in  what 
form  the  products  of  the  food  are  present.  Both, 
either  together  or  separately,  give  information  as 
to  the  quality,  purity,  or  falsification  of  the 
material. 

Where  it  is  a  question  of  grain,  roots,  tubers, 
hay,  or  straw,  the  practical  man  can  often  distin- 
guish various  gradations  in  the  quality  of  these, 
particularly  if  the  conditions  of  growth  and  harvest 
are  known.  It  is  much  more  difficult  to  estimate 
the  feeding  value  of  foods  in  the  form  of  meals  or 
cakes,  for  much  impurity  may  be  invisible  to  the 
naked  eye.  Inadmissible  impurities  and  direct 
falsification  are  often  so  frequent  that  an  examina- 
tion by  a  qualified  person  is  absolutely  necessary. 
Special  care  should  be  taken  with  foods  which  are 
sold  under  names  which  are  not  descriptive  of  the 
article,  for  often  they  are  mixtures  of  cheap  by- 
products with  very  little  feeding  value.  Although 
a  guarantee  as  to  the  amount  of  protein  and  fat 
which  they  contain  may  be  given,  this  is  not  suffi- 
cient, for  there  are  plenty  of  materials  rich  in 
protein,  but  it  is  not  digestible.  Such  sub- 
stances, owing  to  their  cheapness,  are  largely  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  mixtures  of  this  indefinite 
nature. 

The  composition  of  some  waste  products  used 
for  this  purpose  is  seen  from  the  following — 


DURABILITY    OF 

FEEDING-STUFFS 

117 

Bassia 
meal. 

Earth 

nut 

husks. 

Coffee 
bean 
husks. 

Rice 

husks. 

Oat 

husks. 

Millet 
husks. 

Water 

7-8 

IO-I 

n-3 

II-O 

II-O 

n-6 

Crude  protein   . 

267 

7-2 

3-° 

27 

20 

3-9 

Fat    ... 

7-1 

2-9 

0-4 

i-5 

07 

1-2 

Nitrogen-free  extract 
Crude  fibre 

37-i 
u-6 

18-5 

59-1 

207 
63-7 

297 
40-0 

52.0 
28-9 

27.9 

45-8 

Ash    . 

97 

2-2 

0.9 

15.2 

5'4 

9-5 

Digestible  protein 
Starch  equivalent 

07 

24-4 

2-1 
O-I 

01 
6-5 

O-I 

2-5 

18.3 

0-4 
6-6 

Earth-nut  shells  and  rice  husks  are  seen  to  be 
practically  worthless,  coffee  and  millet  husks  lower 
the  feeding  value  of  the  other  food,  whilst  the  oat 
husk  is  no  better  than  straw.  Of  the  267%  crude 
protein  in  Bassia  meal  only  7%  digestible  proteins 
are  present. 

When  the  percentage  composition  of  a  food  has 
been  determined  by  analysis,  then  the  quantity  of 
digestible  nutrients,  and  from  that  the  amount  of 
digestible  protein  and  the  starch  equivalent,  can  be 
calculated  according  to  the  method  given  in  the 
tables  in  the  Appendix. 

With  regard  to  the  palatableness  of  the  various 
food-stuffs  and  the  quantities  that  can  be  fed 
without  injury,  practice  has  furnished  certain  data 
which  will  be  mentioned  when  the  several  food- 
stuffs are  described.  The  descriptions — it  must  not 
be  forgotten — apply  only  to  good  samples,  not  to 
those  materials  which  have  been  injured  by  moulds 
or  fungi,  etc.  Further,  there  may  be  admixture 
with  injurious  substances  or  the  foods  may  have 


n8   SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

been  harvested  after  being  attacked  by  blight,  rust, 
etc.  Damage  may  also  have  occurred  during 
storage.  A  few  of  the  ways  in  which  foods  may 
have  been  reduced  in  value  are — 

1.  Admixture  of  sand,  earth,  and  ashes  causes 
sometimes  no  injury,  even  with  relatively  large 
amounts,  but  cases  have  been  met  with  where 
violent  digestive  disturbances,  constipation,  and 
death  have  been  the  consequence  of  feeding  with 
food  adulterated  with  the  above  substances. 

2.  The  smoke  from  manufactories,  iron  works, 
etc.,  sometimes  carries  poisonous  metallic  sub- 
stances (arsenic,  lead,  and  zinc  compounds)  or  acid 
fumes  on  to  the  plants.  When  fodder  plants  be- 
come damaged  in  this  way  they  can  cause  slow 
poisoning  and  wasting  of  the  animal.  Fodder 
attacked  by  acid  fumes  may  give  rise  to  disease  of 
the  bones. 

3.  The  rust  and  smut  fungi  sometimes  cause  in- 
flammation and  disease  of  the  digestive  organs, 
kidneys  and  bladder,  as  well  as  abortion ;  so  feeding 
with  materials  attacked  by  these  diseases  should 
be  avoided  as  far  as  possible.  By  first  steaming 
the  diseased  fodder  and  then  making  it  into  a  kind 
of  silage,  it  is  possible  but  not  certain  that  the  in- 
jurious properties  are  removed.  The  potato  disease 
is  held  to  be  non-injurious  to  health,  but  it  causes 
loss  on  account  of  the  decomposition  which  the 
tubers  undergo. 


DURABILITY    OF    FEEDING-STUFFS    119 

4.  Fodder  which  has  been  attacked  by  moulds 
or  bacteria  can  also  take  on  poisonous  properties 
and  is  equally  dangerous  for  all  sorts  of  domestic 
animals.  These  moulds,  it  is  well  known,  are  able 
to  make  poisons  from  otherwise  innocuous  con- 
stituents of  the  food.  Under  what  conditions  of 
temperature  and  moisture  and  in  which  stage  of 
growth  this  takes  place  has  not  yet  been  investi- 
gated. In  any  case  diseases  of  the  digestive  organs 
and  disturbances  of  the  nervous  system,  as  well  as 
abortion  and  death,  have  been  noticed  to  follow 
the  feeding  of  damaged  food.  The  instances  are 
sufficiently  numerous  to  warn  those  who  have  to 
feed  damaged  food  to  be  very  careful  in  the  amount 
given. 

Yeasts  have  a  different  action  to  moulds,  they  are 
sometimes  found  in  the  by-products  from  breweries 
and  distilleries,  and  also  in  moist  molasses  feeds,  and 
they  cause  the  formation  of  alcohol.  Food  contain- 
ing alcohol  can  give  rise  to  very  grave  symptoms  in 
domestic  animals,  sometimes  resulting  in  injury  to 
the  heart.  After  thorough  boiling  or  steaming  such 
waste  products  can  be  fed  without  danger,  whereas 
in  the  crude  state  they  cause  fermentation  in  the 
stomach,  accompanied  by  distension  and  purging. 

5.  Frozen  fodder  is  not  of  itself  incapable  of  use, 
but  when  fed  in  large  quantities,  particularly  if 
after  fasting,  a  condition  of  catarrh  of  the  digestive 
organs    can   result.     The   danger    of   frozen   food- 


120   SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

stuffs  is  greater  after  they  begin  to  thaw,  for  they 
then  readily  undergo  decomposition.  By  drying 
or  making  into  silage  or  sour  fodder  (p.  126)  it  is 
possible  to  utilise  frozen  food. 

6.  To  complete  this  subject  mention  may  be 
made  of  the  fact  that  many  weeds  have  injurious 
effects.  Amongst  these  are  the  field  poppy,  deadly 
nightshade,  corn  cockle,  and  charlock.  In  some 
of  these  plants  it  is  the  seeds  that  are  poisonous, 
and  in  others  the  stems,  leaves,  and  seeds. 

All  food-stuffs,  the  action  of  which  is  doubtful, 
are  best  not  given  to  young  or  pregnant  animals 
or  horses. 

The  durability  or  keeping  properties  of  the  feed- 
ing-stuffs depends  in  a  large  measure  upon  the 
amount  of  water  they  contain.  Usually  the  quan- 
tity should  not  exceed  14%  in  the  ordinary  foods 
of  commerce,  and  even  with  this  amount  decom- 
position can  set  in  if  in  the  storage  an  insufficient 
amount  of  air  is  admitted  to  the  bulk.  Malt 
coombs,  rape  cake,  also  cotton  and  earth-nut  cakes 
are  particularly  susceptible  in  this  respect.  In  the 
next  three  chapters  further  particulars  on  this  sub- 
ject will  be  given. 


CHAPTER    II 

CONSERVATION   OF   FEEDING-STUFFS 

(i)    The  making  of  hay. 

IF  green  fodder  plants  of  a  not  too  succulent 
nature  are  dried  in  the  air  and  nothing  lost 
by  the  breaking  off  of  the  stem,  leaf,  or  seed,  it  is 
found  that  the  digestibility  of  the  green  food  and 
the  hay  made  from  it  is  practically  the  same.  In 
the  case  of  fresh  lucerne  57*8%  of  the  organic 
matter  was  digested,  whilst  the  hay  from  it,  care 
having  been  taken  to  prevent  any  loss,  had  a 
digestibility  coefficient  of  57*2%.  Nevertheless, 
when  green  plants  are  dried  in  the  air,  even  when 
on  a  smooth  surface  and  every  particle  carefully 
collected,  a  not  unimportant  loss  takes  place. 
This  arises  chiefly  from  the  fact  that  as  long  as  the 
plants  are  living  they  carry  on  the  process  of  respira- 
tion by  which  proteins  are  decomposed  and  the 
nitrogen-free  substances  suffer  loss.  Young  grass 
which  had  been  left  to  lie  for  ten  days  at  io°  C  in 
the  air  lost  12%  of  dry  matter  by  respiration  and 
mangel  leaves  lying  for  six  days  lost  8%.  It  is 
clear  that  these  losses  can  be  considerable  when 
owing  to  a  low  temperature  or  a  moist  atmosphere, 
the  process  of  drying  is  slow. 

121 


122   SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

Under  the  practical  conditions  of  hay-making 
further  unavoidable  loss  occurs  in  the  one  instance 
from  the  breaking  off  of  parts  of  the  plant  and  in 
the  other  from  the  washing  out  of  soluble  nutrients 
from  the  grass  by  rain.  In  the  most  favourable 
harvest  weather  10-20%  of  the  dry  matter  is  lost 
during  the  making  of  the  hay.  As  the  fragments^ 
which  are  broken  off  are  the  tenderest  and  contain 
the  least  crude  fibre,  it  is  clear  that  the  losses  can 
easily  exceed  those  mentioned.  To  prevent  the  very 
considerable  losses  which  fodder  plants  undergo  in 
good  weather,  and  still  more  so  when  rain  falls,  there 
are  various  methods  of  making  the  withered  grass 
loosely  into  cocks.  In  some  countries  the  partially 
dried  hay  is  heaped  round  a  framework,  and  so  a 
larger  surface  is  exposed  to  the  air  and  wind,  whilst 
in  case  of  rain  the  greater  part  runs  off.  The 
drying  of  hay  in  such  ways  is  preferable  in  the  case 
of  clovers,  lupines,  and  similar  plants  whose  tender 
leaves  dry  more  rapidly  than  do  the  stems,  and  on 
turning  are  more  easily  lost  than  is  the  case  with 
meadow  plants.  Experiments  with  red  clover  have 
shown  that  in  bad  weather  25-2%  of  the  dry  sub- 
stance was  lost,  and  in  good  weather  16-4%  where 
the  ordinary  methods  of  hay-making  were  used, 
whereas  by  drying  in  pyramid  form  on  a  framework 
the  loss  was  only  9-1%. 

From  100  parts  of  the  crude  protein  present  in 
the  fresh  clover  the  loss  was  18-1%  where  frames 


CONSERVATION  OF  FEEDING-STUFFS   123 

were  used,  whereas  the  ordinary  drying  caused  a 
loss  of  23-3%  in  fairly  good  weather  and  497% 
in  bad  weather.  New  hay  usually  contains  a  fairly 
large  quantity  of  water  and  sweats  for  six  to  eight 
weeks  after  being  made  into  the  stack.  During 
this  time  fermentation,  the  details  of  which  have  not 
yet  been  worked  out,  takes  place.  Before  the  end 
of  the  fermentation  newly  made  hay  easily  causes 
disturbances  in  the  health  of  animals.  If  it  is 
necessary  to  feed  new  hay  it  should  be  mixed  at 
first  with  old  hay  or  straw,  and  the  quantity  of  new 
hay  gradually  increased. 

When  hay  is  stored  in  dry,  airy  buildings  it  does 
not  change  in  composition  and  digestibility  for 
some  considerable  length  of  time.  Gradually, 
however,  the  hay  loses  its  fresh  smell,  becomes 
attacked  by  hay  mites  and  is  then  soon  brittle  and 
dusty.  In  such  a  condition  hay  is  not  readily  eaten, 
so  it  is  then  advisable  to  mix  it  with  other  coarse 
fodder.  Often,  to  obviate  the  necessity  of  too 
much  drying  and  so  incurring  loss  by  crumbling, 
1-2%  of  cattle  salt  is  added  to  the  hay  when  it  is 
being  made.  This  should  be  distributed  as  evenly 
as  possible  over  the  layers  of  hay,  and  it  may  also 
be  used  to  improve  the  taste  of  hay  that  has  been 
badly  harvested  and  so  lost  its  flavour.  The  addi- 
tion of  salt  also  limits  the  heating  of  wet  hay  (p.  124) 
and  so  is  useful  for  meadow  and  clover  hay. 

In  some  districts  another  method  of  making  hay 


124  SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

is  practised,  in  which  the  plants  are  allowed  to 
wither  after  cutting,  and  are  then  made  into 
stacks,  or  stored  in  barns.  The  various  modifica- 
tions which  are  adopted  differ  considerably  as 
regards  the  drying  of  the  grasses,  etc.  It  is  prefer- 
able to  continue  the  drying  until  the  plants  begin 
to  rustle  when  they  are  handled,  but  the  leaves 
should  remain  tough  and  not  brittle,  and  the  stems 
green  but  containing  little  sap.  The  hay  is  then 
carted  to  the  stack,  or  left  for  a  day  or  two  in  the 
field  in  cocks.  In  making  the  stack,  the  hay  is  put 
on  in  layers  and  trampled  down  so  that  no  cavities 
remain,  for  in  them  moulds  would  form.  The 
stacks  are  afterwards  usually  covered  with  a  thatch 
of  straw.  After  some  little  time,  in  some  cases 
even  twelve  hours,  fermentation,  accompanied  by 
a  rise  of  temperature,  sets  in.  In  the  interior  of 
the  stack,  the  temperature  rises  to  100-1400  F., 
even  2020  F.,  but  it  should  not  be  allowed  to  go 
above  1750  F.  Sometimes  the  heating  of  a  stack 
goes  so  far  that  there  is  danger  even  of  it  taking 
fire,  but  in  any  case  the  temperature  should  not  be 
allowed  to  rise  too  high,  for  otherwise  the  quality 
of  the  hay  suffers.  The  cutting  of  holes  into  the 
stack,  or  the  taking  off  of  some  of  the  hay,  are  the 
methods  usually  adopted  to  cool  down  the  mass. 

The  heating  of  the  hay  is  due  to  several  causes, 
such  as  the  respiration  of  the  still  living  parts  of 
the   plants,  the   combination   of   oxygen    enclosed 


CONSERVATION   OF  FEEDING-STUFFS   125 

in  the  stack  with  the  organic  matter,  and  above  all 
the  activity  of  different  varieties  of  bacteria,  which 
very  soon  develop  prodigiously.  In  small  stacks, 
the  water  is  quickly  got  rid  of  owing  to  the  high 
temperature,  but  in  larger  stacks  it  cannot  escape 
so  quickly,  and  so  fermentation  continues  for  a 
longer  period.  This  means  a  greater  loss  of  material 
than  in  a  small  stack.  Experiments  have  shown 
that  whilst  in  a  small  stack  the  loss  of  dry  matter 
was  14-2%,  in  a  stack  double  the  size  the  loss  was 
30% 

The  losses  fall  principally  upon  the  nitrogen-free 
extract  substances,  but  the  proteins  also  suffer. 
The  former  are  completely  decomposed,  whilst  the 
latter  pass  partly  into  non-protein  matter  and 
partly  into  an  indigestible  form.  The  higher  the 
temperature  rises  during  the  making  of  the  hay, 
and  the  darker  the  colour  of  it  is,  the  less  digestible 
are  the  proteins  found  to  be.  By  means  of  artificial 
digestion  experiments  it  was  found  that  of  the 
crude  protein  in  the  meadow  grass  86-5%  was 
digestible  when  the  hay  made  from  the  grass  was 
light  brown  in  colour,  when  it  was  dark  brown  75-1  %, 
when  black  2-6%  only. 


(2)    Sour  fodder  and  silage. 

For  the  preparation  of  sour  fodder  the  leaves  and 
tops  of  root  crops,  green  maize,  potatoes,  mangels, 


126  SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

slices  of  sugar  beet,  and  less  frequently,  ordinary 
grasses  and  clovers  are  used.  These  materials  are 
brought  into  pits  or  silos,  which  are  either  simply 
dug  out  of  the  earth  or  made  with  bricks,  cement, 
etc.  In  filling  the  silo,  the  fodder  is  put  in  in 
layers  and  well  stamped  down  so  as  to  get  rid  of  air. 
At  the  top  of  the  pit  or  pile,  a  layer  of  chaff  or 
chopped  straw  is  put,  or  else  thick  roofing  paper, 
and  above  that  a  layer  of  earth  two  feet  thick. 
The  pit  is  finished  off  by  placing  boards  closely 
together  on  the  top  and  weighting  them  with  large 
stones.  As  it  is  important  to  prevent  the  ground 
water  from  mixing  with  the  contents  of  the  silo,  it 
is  advisable  where  sour  fodder  is  made  regularly  to 
provide  pits  with  impermeable  walls  rather  than 
simple  pits  dug  out  of  the  earth.  To  prevent  rain 
water  entering  the  pits  it  is  best  to  fill  them  above 
the  surface  level,  so  that  when  the  contents  settle 
down  there  is  no  depression.  When  the  pits  are 
walled  the  walls  ought  to  be  continued  above  the 
ground.  Any  cracks  or  chinks  in  the  roofing  must 
always  be  carefully  closed,  to  prevent  as  far  as 
possible  the  entrance  of  air.  The  size  of  the  pits  is 
naturally  regulated  by  the  amount  of  fodder  to  be 
made  —  a  width  of  6-14  feet  with  a  depth  of 
6-10  feet  and  length  according  to  circumstances. 

In  countries  where  maize  is  the  chief  fodder  the 
silos  are  generally  above  ground,  often  of  consider- 
able height,  and  are  protected  against  changes  of 


CONSERVATION   OF   FEEDING-STUFFS   127 

temperature  by  double  walls,  the  space  between 
being  left  empty. 

When  green  maize  is  being  made  into  silage  it 
is  usual  to  cut  it  into  pieces  an  inch  or  two  in  length 
and  then  fill  them  into  the  silo.  Potatoes,  mangels, 
beet,  etc.,  are  best  sliced,  and  sometimes  some  chaff 
or  chopped  hay  is  mixed  with  them  to  prevent  loss 
of  the  juice.  It  is  not  necessary  to  add  any  salt. 
When  filling  the  silo  or  pits,  the  fodder  should  be 
given  time  in  which  to  settle  down  both  in  order 
to  fully  utilise  the  space  and  to  allow  succulent 
materials  to  heat  slightly — so  that  the  temperature 
rises  to  1040  or  no°  F.  In  the  case  of  green  maize 
it  has  been  found  advisable  only  to  add  a  layer  of 
2J-3  feet  daily.  Where  long  intervals  elapse  during 
filling,  it  is  necessary  to  cover  up  the  fodder. 

The  plants  stored  in  the  silo  are  living,  and  until 
they  die  they  respire  and  this  means  the  loss  of 
nitrogen-free  substances  and  the  splitting  up  of 
protein.  In  the  silo  the  various  bacteria  and 
yeasts  soon  become  active  and  acetic,  butyric,  and 
lactic  acids,  as  well  as  marsh  gas  and  alcohol,  etc., 
are  formed ;  at  the  same  time  the  contents  of  the 
silo  begin  to  rise  in  temperature.  Generally,  the 
lactic  acid  bacteria  gain  the  upper  hand  and  prevent 
the  activity  of  the  other  micro-organisms.  This 
is  particularly  the  case  where  the^ temperature  rises 
above  1200  F.  Acetic  and  butyric  acid  bacteria  can- 
not withstand  this  temperature,  whereas  the  lactic 


128  SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

acid  bacteria  can.  The  object  in  making  silage  is 
to  obtain  conditions  which  are  favourable  to  the 
lactic  acid  bacteria.  The  chief  fermentation  is 
usually  over  in  six  to  eight  weeks  and  the  silage  is 
then  ready  for  use.  When  prepared  in  this  way 
it  has  a  sour  smell  and  taste  and  resembles  in  its 
physical  properties  cooked  food.  Care  should  be 
taken  when  feeding  silage  to  take  only  a  day's 
supply  from  the  silo,  for  when  it  is  exposed  to  the 
air  it  easily  decomposes  and  becomes  dangerous  as 
a  food.  A  special  warning  may  also  be  given 
against  feeding  silage  that  has  undergone  decom- 
position in  the  silo  (p.  119). 

Well-made  silage  is  excellent  for  feeding  grown 
cattle ;  fattening  bullocks  may  be  given  up  to 
50  lbs.  per  1000  lbs.  live  weight  per  day,  whilst  for 
milking  cows  30-40  lbs.  is  enough,  and  for  sheep 
25-30  lbs.  Pigs  also  readily  eat  such  food,  and  do 
well  on  potatoes,  mangels  or  beet,  which  have  been 
made  into  fodder  in  this  way.  On  the  other  hand, 
young  or  pregnant  animals   and  also  horses  had 

(better  not  be  given  silage.  The  free  acids  in  the 
silage  have  a  loosening  tendency,  and  it  is  advisable 
to  add  to  each  100  lbs.  of  silage  about  J-  lb.  of  pre- 
cipitated chalk. 

Unfortunately  the  losses  which  food-stuffs  undergo 

on  being  made  into  silage  are  very  considerable. 

Green  maize  which  had  been  left  in  the  silo  twenty 

weeks  when  taken  out  was  found  to  have  lost  17-5% 

\ 


CONSERVATION  OF  FEEDING-STUFFS   129 

of  the  organic  matter,  22-3%  of  crude  protein,  417% 
of  pure  protein,  21 -i%  of  crude  fibre,  and  17-5% 
of  nitrogen-free  extract.  Beet  tops  and  leaves  which 
had  lain  4^  months  in  a  pit  silo  lost  49%  of  dry 
matter,  63%  crude  protein,  74%  pure  protein,  33% 
crude  fibre,  43%  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  67% 
mineral  substances.  In  a  water-tight  silo,  where 
the  juices  could  not  drain  away,  the  losses  were 
considerably  less,  being  only  18%  of  dry  matter, 
16%  of  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  32%  crude  fibre. 
Even  here,  though,  the  changes  which  the  protein 
had  undergone  were  considerable,  66%  of  the 
proteins  being  changed  into  non-protein  substances. 
According  to  other  observations,  sliced  beetroots, 
after  being  seven  months  in  a  walled  silo,  lost  22% 
of  organic  matter,  in  an  un walled  silo  35  %.  Potatoes 
lost,  in  six  months,  19-36%,  mangels,  32%,  and 
beet  leaves  31%.  The  losses  increase  with  the 
time  of  storage;  the  loss  of  organic  matter  from 
steamed  potatoes  made  into  sour  fodder,  after  fifty 
days,  was  13-4%,  after  seventy-six  days  18-3%, 
and  after  one  hundred  and  forty  days  22-4%.  It 
must  be  noted  too  that  the  losses  fall  principally 
upon  the  easily  digestible  portion  of  the  food.  An 
example  is  given  in  the  case  of  sainfoin  made  in  one 
case  into  hay,  and  in  the  other  into  silage;  the 
digestibility  coefficient  of  the  organic  matter  in 
the  hay  was  62,  whilst  in  the  silage  it  was  only  45. 
In  view  of  the  heavy  losses  which  are  associated 


130   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF    ANIMALS 

with  the  making  of  silage,  the  practice  can  only  be 
regarded  as  a  makeshift  to  be  resorted  to  when  no 
other  method  is  practicable.  Where  the  making  of 
hay  is  possible  it  should  have  the  preference  over 
ensilage,  and  the  latter  practice  be  limited  to  the 
conservation  of  beet  leaves,  beet  slices,  frozen 
mangels  and  potatoes,  etc.  Most  careful  considera- 
tion is  required  before  using  fodders  rich  in  protein, 
such  as  clovers,  for  the  preparation  of  silage,  and 
it  would  be  quite  useless  to  mix  bran  or  other  by- 
products with  the  fermenting  material. 


(3)    The  storage  of  cereal  grains. 

Cereal  grains,  if  in  a  well-ripened  condition  and 
not  attacked  by  mould,  are  usually  stored  without 
further  treatment  in  dry  cool  buildings.  The 
grains  are  either  spread  out  on  the  floor  and  the 
layer  turned  over  from  time  to  time  with  a  shovel, 
or  else  they  are  stored  in  tall  metal  holders  (eleva- 
tors). The  grains  undergo  a  process  of  respiration, 
as  do  all  living  substances,  taking  up  oxygen  and 
giving  out  carbon  dioxide,  and  so  using  up  organic 
substances.  Experiments  which  have  been  made 
with  oats  have  shown  that  when  they  were  kept 
in  the  air  they  lost  in  the  course  of  a  year,  through 
respiration,  6-5%  of  the  original  carbon  present. 
In  closed  vessels  this  loss  is  smaller,  because  the 
oxygen  which  is  in  the  vessel  is  soon  used  up.     The 


CONSERVATION  OF  FEEDING-STUFFS   131 

extent  of  the  losses  which  grain  undergoes  when 
stored  depends  chiefly  upon  the  moisture  it  con- 
tains and  upon  the  temperature  of  the  place  in  which 
it  is  stored ;  the  moister  the  grain  the  greater  the  loss. 
On  being  kept  three  weeks  50  grams  each  of  oats 
containing  2-52,  11-18,  16-98,  17-82%  of  water  gave 
out  0-2,  3-1,  24-7,  35-1  c.c.  of  carbon  dioxide  re- 
spectively. When  stored  in  elevators  moist  grain 
is  subject  to  a  further  disadvantage,  for,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  rise  of  temperature,  part  of  the 
water  passes  off  as  steam  and  condenses  on  the 
cooler  parts  of  the  elevator,  causing  moulds  to  form. 
It  is  therefore  advisable  not  to  store  grain  in  such 
holders  if  the  quantity  of  water  it  contains  exceeds 
13-14%.  Should  the  grain  contain  more  than  this 
amount  it  ought  to  be  dried  at  a  low  temperature 
before  being  stored. 

The  temperature  also  favours  the  processes  of 
respiration  in  grains,  as  is  seen  from  the  following 
experiments  with  oats.  When  the  temperatures 
were  120,  240,  270,  370,  460  C.  it  was  found  that  in 
eighteen  days  the  oats  produced  7-5,  36-1,  54-7, 
66-3,  92-4  c.c.  of  carbon  dioxide  respectively. 
Another  circumstance  is  also  of  importance,  and  that 
is  the  purity  of  the  grains  which  are  to  be  stored ; 
if  they  are  mixed  with  dust,  earth,  broken  grains, 
all  of  which  easily  absorb  moisture  and  so  become 
damp  and  liable  to  be  attacked  by  moulds,  the 
sound  grains   are  infected.     On  this  account  it  is 


132   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

essential  to  sift,  winnow,  and  in  other  ways  clean 
the  grain  that  is  to  be  stored  for  any  length  of 
time.  It  is  not  recommended  to  store  for  long 
crushed  or  ground  grains,  meals,  etc.,  for  materials 
in  that  condition  undergo  a  still  more  rapid  forma- 
tion of  carbon  dioxide  and  so  lose  more  weight. 
They  are  also  very  liable  to  attack  by  mites,  which 
in  a  short  time  increase  enormously  and  finally 
leave  behind  very  little  but  their  dung  and  the 
hard  husks  of  the  grain. 


(4)    The  keeping  of  roots  and  tubers. 

Roots  and  tubers  also  undergo  the  process  of 
respiration,  which  depends  in  extent  principally 
upon  the  temperature  of  the  place  in  which  they 
are  stored.  From  experiments  carried  out  with 
potatoes  it  was  found  that  the  formation  of  carbon 
dioxide  per  hour  was  10-5  mgms.  at  200  C,  4-5  mgms. 
at  io°  C,  and  2-5  mgms.  at  o°C,  whilst  again  at 
20°  C.  the  quantity  of  carbon  dioxide  rose  to  10  mgms. 
If  these  figures  are  applied  on  the  basis  of  100  kg. 
of  fresh  roots  stored  for  a  month  the  losses  of 
starch  would  be  as  follows:  at  200  0-43  kg.,  at  io° 
0-19  kg.,  and  at  o°  o-io  kg.  In  these  experiments 
it  was  also  shown  that  100  lbs.  of  sugar  beets  respire 
in  one  month  as  much  organic  substance  as  would 
equal  o-n,  0-29,  0-88  kgs.  cane  sugar  when  the  tem- 
peratures were  o°,  50,  and  io°  C.  respectively. 


CONSERVATION  OF  FEEDING-STUFFS   133 

The  losses  due  to  respiration  fall  chiefly  upon 
the  starch,  which  must  previously  be  converted 
into  sugar.  Such  a  formation  of  sugar  takes  place 
uninterruptedly  in  the  living  tubers,  but  this  is  not 
so  easy  to  prove  at  higher  temperature  as  it  is 
immediately  used  up  in  the  process  of  respiration. 
If,  however,  respiration  is  diminished  by  keeping 
the  potatoes  at  a  low  temperature,  the  sugar  is 
not  completely  destroyed,  a  portion  remains  over. 
As  the  change  of  starch  into  sugar  is  not  prevented 
by  low  temperature,  the  potatoes  under  these  con- 
ditions become  sweet  owing  to  the  storage  of  the 
sugar.  The  extent  of  this  increase  is  shown  in  an 
experiment  where  potatoes  were  kept  for  a  long 
time  at  o°  C. ,  and  it  was  observed  that  after — 


3  d 

lys     ....      0-51  gr.,  s 

5    , 

.      1-25 

10    , 

.     2-65 

20    , 

.     7-52 

30    , 

.         .         .         .     18-53         » 

50    , 

.     267 

59    1 

•     30-3 

sugar 


At  30  C.  the  increase  in  sugar  was  much  more 
gradual,  so  that  after  50  days  only  579  gr.  were 
found.  At  8-100  there  was  no  storage  of  sugar  at 
all. 

If  potatoes  which  have  become  sweet  at  a  low 
temperature  are  brought  into  a  warm  place  the 


134  SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

sugar  vanishes  in  a  short  time — part  of  it  is  respired, 
part  of  it  reconverted  into  starch  and  in  consequence 
the  tubers  lose  their  sweetness. 

Where  thirty  different  varieties  of  potatoes  were 
tested,  300  kg.  of  each  being  stored  in  a  uniform 
way,  it  was  found  that  after  nearly  five  months' 
storage  there  was  an  average  loss  in  weight  of  8%, 
which  is  equivalent  to  2-04  kg.  on  100  kg.  potatoes. 

Similar  results  were  obtained  in  another  experi- 
ment where  forty-six  varieties  were  kept  in  a  dry 
cellar  and  protected  from  frost,  the  losses  varying 
from  3-8-20-4%,  and  on  an  average  were  8-i%, 
to  which  must  be  added  the  loss,  4-2%,  due  to 
rotten  and  diseased  potatoes. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  potatoes  carefully 
stored  lose  1-3%  of  their  weight  per  month.  When 
the  tubers  germinate  in  spring,  the  losses  increase 
very  considerably.  If  the  potatoes  are  kept  until 
June,  then  15-20%  of  their  weight,  it  may  be 
assumed,  will  have  vanished.  Turnips,  on  the 
other  hand,  have  been  known  to  increase  in  weight 
in  the  damp,  which  must  be  ascribed  to  the  water 
which  they  take  up. 

In  twenty-seven  experiments,  in  which  mangels 
were  kept  from  the  middle  of  October  to  the  middle 
of  March,  there  was  a  loss  in  the  dry  matter  of  8%, 
which  was  due  principally  to  the  respiration  of  the 
carbohydrates.  Mangels  which  contained  a  lot  of 
water  lost  9-5%  of  the  dry  matter  and  9-1%  of  the 


CONSERVATION  OF  FEEDING-STUFFS   135 

nitrogen-free  extract,  whilst  mangels  which  con- 
tained less  water  lost  only  5-8%  dry  matter  and 
5-7%  nitrogen-free  extract.  A  very  considerable 
part  of  the  cane  sugar  in  mangels  is  converted,  on 
storage  of  the  roots,  into  grape  and  fruit  sugars. 
All  these  circumstances  are  strongly  influenced  by 
the  temperature  of  the  storage  place,  and  in  the 
same  sense  as  was  the  case  with  the  potatoes  men- 
tioned above.  Protection  from  frost,  from  tem- 
perature above  50-540  F.,  from  moisture,  sufficient 
mechanical  ventilation  under  certain  circumstances, 
removal  of  diseased  tubers,  as  well  as  the  excess 
of  earth  before  clamping,  are  points  to  be  remem- 
bered in  storing  roots,  either  in  clamps  or  in  cellars. 

(5)    The  artificial  drying  of  feeding-stuffs. 

Beet  slices,  brewers'  grains,  distillery  waste,  etc., 
which  are  difficult  to  preserve  in  their  original 
state  are  often  dried  artificially.  For  this  purpose 
many  different  forms  of  apparatus  have  been 
designed  to  effect  a  rapid  desiccation,  and  the  success 
which  they  have  achieved  has  led  to  other  materials 
— potatoes,  turnip  tops,  and  even  skim  milk — being 
so  treated.  In  many  cases,  as  with  sliced  beets, 
sometimes  also  with  brewers'  grains  and  dis- 
tillery waste,  the  greater  part  of  the  water  is  first 
got  rid  of  by  pressure  or  centrifugal  force.  After 
this  steam  or  furnace  gases  are  used  to  thoroughly 
dry  the  material. 


136   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

The  artificial  drying  of  food-stuffs  at  fairly  high 
temperatures  diminishes,  as  a  rule,  the  digestibility 
of  the  protein.  Sometimes  other  constituents  of 
the  food  are  also  rendered  less  digestible,  particu- 
larly when  by  use  of  the  furnace  gases  a  partial 
charring  of  the  substance  takes  place.  It  has  been 
shown  by  comparative  experiments,  however,  that 
with  turnip  slices  and  potatoes  the  dry  material 
obtained  by  the  use  of  furnace  gases  is  quite  as 
good  as  that  dried  by  steam  if  the  temperature  is 
carefully  regulated. 

Turnip  or  mangel  tops  are  most  difficult  to  dry 
successfully,  for  the  tender  leaves  are  very  apt  to 
char  whilst  the  fleshy  part  of  the  top  is  still 
undried.  As  a  result  it  often  happens  that  the 
leaves  are  quite  black  and  the  digestibility  of  them 
greatly  diminished.  The  average  coefficient  of 
digestibility  for  the  crude  protein  in  dried  turnip 
leaves  was  found  to  be  40-50%,  whilst  the  diges- 
tibility of  the  fresh  material  was  74%. 

When  a  high  temperature  acts  upon  succulent 
food-stuffs  the  proteins  are  converted  into  other 
forms,  which  resist  the  digestive  juices.  The 
nitrogen-free  extract  substances  are  not  injured  by 
drying  unless  the  material  is  actually  charred. 


CHAPTER    III 

PREPARATION   OF  THE    FEEDING-STUFFS 

i .  /^"^  REEN  or  coarse  fodder  from  long-stemmed 
vJ  plants  is  usually  chopped  to  prevent  loss  by 
scattering  about,  to  make  chewing  easier,  and  by 
admixture  with  other  foods  to  secure  a  thorough 
mastication.  The  pieces  of  chopped  material 
should  be  of  such  a  length  that  they  have  to  be 
chewed  before  being  swallowed.  Cattle,  as  a  rule, 
ought  to  get  chopped  straw  in  pieces  of  i-ij  inches, 
horses  and  sheep  j-i  inch  ;  green  fodder  and  hay 
are  best  cut  longer  than  this.  There  is  no  advan- 
tage in  chopping  the  materials  any  shorter  than 
this ;  on  the  contrary  there  is  danger  of  colic  if  the 
pieces  are  too  small.  Short  chaff  is  not  digested 
any  better  than  long,  for  in  comparative  experi- 
ments with  wheat  and  barley  straw,  it  was  found 
that  even  in  the  form  of  powder  they  were  not 
more  completely  digested  by  oxen. 

Mangels,  turnips,  and  potatoes,  which  even 
uncut  are  readily  eaten,  are  usually  sliced  in 
order  to   mix   them   more   thoroughly   with  other 

137 


138   SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

foods  and  to  prevent  large  pieces  sticking  in  the 
gullet. 

Hard  grains  of  corn  easily  escape  the  action  of 
the  teeth  and  so  pass  unchanged  into  the  dung. 
Certain  species  of  animals  and  those  with  defective 
teeth  should  get  their  corn  either  crushed  or  ground. 
It  is  often  a  matter  of  discussion  whether  oats 
should  be  crushed  for  horses.  Trials  in  which 
chopped  hay  was  mixed  with  the  oats  showed  that 
when  the  whole  grains  were  fed  64-6%  of  the  dry 
matter  of  the  oat  was  digested,  when  crushed  oats 
were  given  68-6%,  and  coarsely  ground  oats  727%. 
It  was  found  in  another  series  of  experiments  that 
by  crushing  the  oats  5-16  lbs.,  according  to  the 
animal,  could  be  saved  on  each  1000  lbs.  of  grain. 
Sometimes,  of  course,  the  cost  of  crushing  will  not 
be  repaid  by  the  gain  in  digestibility.  Amongst 
owners  of  horses  there  seems  to  be  a  fairly  prevalent 
idea  that  crushed  oats  are  not  so  good  as  whole  ones 
for  maintaining  the  vivacity  and  staying  powers 
of  the  animal. 

Maize,  barley,  rye,  buckwheat,  and  leguminous 
seeds  should  be  coarsely  ground  for  all  animals,  as 
these  hard  grains  are  difficult  to  chew,  and  when 
eaten  whole  they  swell  considerably  in  the  stomach. 
Horses  were  found  to  digest  only  82-5%  of  the  dry 
matter  of  whole  maize,  whereas  when  the  maize 
was  ground  they  digested  89-5%.  In  the  case  of 
pigs  the  difference  was  greater,  74-4%  as  against 


PREPARATION  OF  FEEDING-STUFFS    139 

88-4%;  these  animals,  as  is  well  known,  swallow 
their  food  without  chewing  it  much,  and  so  they 
usually  get  corn  in  the  form  of  meal.  The  advan- 
tages gained  by  this  have  been  clearly  shown  by 
tests  in  the  United  States,  where  one  lot  of  pigs  were 
fed  on  whole  maize  and  bran  gruel,  whilst  the 
others  got  both  maize  and  bran  ground  up  and 
made  into  gruel.  The  animals  in  each  case  were 
allowed  as  much  as  they  could  eat. 

The  experiments  lasted  for  ten  years,  during 
which  time  eighteen  series  of  experiments  with,  in 
all,  280  pigs  were  carried  out.  The  total  food  con- 
sumed and  the  total  increase  of  live  weight  during 
this  time  were  as  follows — 


Whole  maize 

lbs. 

.  46,736  .. 

.    Bran 

lbs. 

.  22,590  .. 

.   Increase  , 

lbs. 

.  13,828 

Ground     „ 

.  50,647  .. 

)> 

.  24,189  .. 

„ 

.  15,891 

From  these  figures  it  is  found  that  in  the  whole 
maize  and  bran  series  501  lbs.  of  food  were  neces- 
sary to  make  100  lbs.  increase  of  body  weight, 
whilst  with  the  meal  only  471  lbs.  were  essential, 
so  that  6%  more  maize  would  be  needed  if  the 
whole  grains  were  fed.  Whether  it  would  be 
profitable  to  grind  the  maize  would  depend  upon 
the  price  of  it  and  of  the  pigs,  as  well  as  upon  the 
cost  of  grinding.  Pigs  that  have  not  been  accus- 
tomed to  feed  on  whole  grain  from  a  young  state  are 
easily  upset,  and  may  suffer  serious  digestive  troubles 
if  the  corn  is  given  unground. 


140   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

2.  The  moistening  of  food  with  cold  water  just 
before  feeding  helps  to  ensure  consumption  of  hard 
unpalatable  materials  and  allows  of  the  different 
materials  being  well  mixed.  It  also  prevents  the 
fine  particles  of  meal  being  blown  about,  as  well  as 
the  injury  which  the  dust  might  cause  to  the 
respiratory  organs.  It  has  been  shown  experi- 
mentally that  simply  moistening  the  food  has  not 
the  least  influence  upon  its  digestibility,  but  where 
it  is  left  to  soak  for  some  time  in  cold  water  the 
effect  is  somewhat  different.  If  the  amount  of 
water  soaked  up  is  so  much  that  the  drinking- 
water  is  reduced  25%  of  what  it  would  be  if  the 
food  were  taken  dry,  then  a  slight  depression  of 
protein  digestion  results.  An  excessive  consump- 
tion of  water  is  also  for  other  reasons  (p.  101)  to  be 
avoided. 

3.  The  cooking,  scalding,  or  steaming  of  food  has 
for  its  object  the  softening  of  hard  material,  and  the 
rendering  of  the  whole  more  palatable  and  more 
easily  masticated.  When  hot  water  or  steam  are 
used  injurious  moulds  or  animal  parasites  are  killed, 
but  there  is  naturally  no  guarantee  that  injurious 
products  of  decomposition  or  poisonous  substances 
will  be  rendered  harmless. 

Cooked,  scalded,  or  steamed  food  is  usually  given 
warm  and  so  brings  a  certain  amount  of  heat  into 
the  animal  body,  which,  where  a  meagre  ration  is 
being  fed,  or  where  the  stable  is  cold,  may  serve 


PREPARATION  OF  FEEDING-STUFFS    141 

a  useful  purpose.  Food  treated  in  this  way  is  not 
more  digestible ;  rather  the  opposite,  for  in  experi- 
ments with  steamed  meadow  hay  and  scalded  wheat 
bran  the  crude  protein  was  less  digestible.  It  was 
found  in  fact  that  whilst  46  %  of  the  crude  protein 
of  the  hay  and  77  %  of  that  in  the  bran  were  digest- 
ible the  amount  sank  in  the  steamed  hay  to  30%, 
and  in  the  scalded  bran  to  70-74%.  These  differ- 
ences are  still  more  pronounced  where  superheated 
steam  is  allowed  to  act  upon  the  food.  According 
then  to  these  observations  the  above  methods 
should  never  be  employed  where  sound,  palatable, 
and  easily  digestible  food  is  given.  Treatment  with 
hot  water  or  steam  may  be  of  service  with  chaff 
containing  rust  spores,  diseased  plants,  mouldy 
fodder,  etc.  etc.,  and  may  render  some  parts  of  the 
food  available.  It  should  not  be  forgotten  either 
that  in  this  way  weed  seeds  and  spores  of  fungi  are 
killed  and  so  prevented  from  again  finding  their 
way  to  the  field  in  the  dung. 

Some  food-stuffs  like  potatoes  are  more  valuable 
when  cooked  or  steamed,  as  will  be  mentioned  later, 
but  such  treatment  yields  a  tasteless,  relaxing  diet, 
which  is  most  suitable  for  pigs.  Fattening  cattle 
and  dairy  stock  may  also  get  cooked  food,  but 
young  or  working  animals  should  only  be  given 
small  quantities.  In  any  case  Care  must  be  taken 
that  such  food  does  not  cause  more  water  to  be 
brought  into  the  body  than  is  necessary,  for  exces- 


142   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF    ANIMALS 

sive  quantities  of  thin  gruel-like  foods  cause  weak- 
ness of  the  digestive  organs  (p.  101).  Horses  and 
sheep  thrive  best  when  the  ration  is  in  dry  form,  but 
in  some  cases,  e.g.  when  feeding  potatoes,  fiozen 
and  damaged  roots,  diseased  straw,  musty  corn, 
etc.,  cooking  or  steaming  may  fitly  be  employed. 
With  cattle  it  is  somewhat  different,  for  they  do 
well  on  steamed  coarse  fodder,  or  on  other  foods 
which  have  been  prepared  in  this  way.  For  pigs, 
cooked  or  steamed  food  is  the  principal  article  of 
diet,  and  it  has  been  shown  that  the  increase  of  live 
weight  is  then  greater  than  when  the  same  food  is 
given  in  crushed  or  ground  form.  As  a  rule  such 
preparation  of  the  food  is  carried  somewhat  too  far, 
for  it  should  be  reserved  for  those  materials  which 
are  difficult  of  digestion  in  the  crude  state,  or  which 
show  unpleasant  after-effects.  In  all  cases  par- 
ticular care  should  be  taken  that  the  mangers  are 
scrupulously  clean. 

4.  The  roasting  of  food-stuffs  is  very  seldom  done 
owing  to  the  losses  in  digestible  nutrients,  but 
occasionally  where  a  food  has  become  musty  or 
mouldy,  or  otherwise  attacked  by  fungi,  it  may  be 
usefully  employed.  Roasting  also  serves  to  destroy 
the  unpleasant-tasting  substances  in  horse  chestnuts 
and  lupine  seeds. 

5.  Feeding-stuffs  are  sometimes  steeped  in  water 
in  order  to  get  rid  of  some  soluble  constituents  which 
are  objectionable.     Potatoes,  for  example,  are  cut 


PREPARATION  OF  FEEDING-STUFFS    143 

into  thin  slices  and  put  into  a  cask  with  a  double 
bottom  and  tap,  then  covered  with  cold  water 
which  after  standing  6-12  hours  is  drawn  off.  In 
this  way  the  greater  part  of  the  acrid  substances  are 
got  rid  of  without  loss  of  nutrients.  Potatoes  con- 
tain about  3  %  of  material  soluble  in  cold  water. 

Good  results  are  obtained  by  steeping  lupine 
seeds,  which  contain  a  bitter  principle  with  poison- 
ous properties,  in  cold  water,  for  otherwise  only 
small  quantities  are  eaten  by  stock.  Lupine  seeds 
are  very  liable  to  cause  distension  and  affect  the 
milk,  either  reducing  the  quantity  or  giving  it  a 
bitter  taste,  etc. 

To  get  rid  of  these  bitter  substances  the  lupines 
are  soaked  for  24-36  hours  in  cold  or  lukewarm 
water,  then  boiled  for  an  hour,  and  finally  washed 
well  with  cold  water,  the  water  being  changed  every 
6-12  hours.  Where  convenient  the  final  washing 
can  be  done  in  a  stream,  the  seeds  being  placed  in 
baskets  or  sacks.  As  lupine  seeds  after  treatment 
are  very  slippery  and  difficult  to  chew,  it  is  ad- 
visable to  crush  them  before  feeding.  This  method 
of  preparing  lupine  seeds  would  probably  prevent 
lupine  sickness,  which  from  time  to  time  is  pre- 
valent (see  under  "  Grains  "). 

In  the  process  of  steeping  the  ripe  seeds  lose 
12-20%  of  dry  matter,  mostly  nitrogen-free  extract 
substance,  whilst  unripe  seeds  lose  up  to  30%. 


T44   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

6.  The  heating  of  straw  with  soda  lye  under 
pressure. 

This  process  has  for  its  object  the  solution  of 
part  of  the  incrusting  material,  which  decreases  the 
digestibility  (p.  14).  For  the  treatment  of  200  lbs. 
of  straw  it  is  advised  to  take  40  gals,  of  water  and 
4-8  lbs.  of  caustic  soda,  and  heat  the  whole  in  a 
boiler  under  a  pressure  of  60-80  lbs.  to  square  inch 
for  six  hours.  On  cooling,  the  material  can  be  fed 
without  further  treatment  to  cattle  or  sheep,  both 
of  which  eat  it  readily.  When  the  mixture  has 
been  heated  for  a  sufficiently  long  time  under  pres- 
sure it  loses  its  alkaline  properties,  for  so  much  acid 
is  formed  from  the  straw  that  the  soda  lye  is  neu- 
tralised. 

Ammonia  has  also  been  tried  in  place  of  the  soda 
lye,  for  it  would  have  the  advantage  of  being  re- 
coverable by  distillation.  The  organic  matter  of 
oat  straw  which  had  been  treated  by  this  process 
with  soda  lye  showed  a  digestibility  coefficient  of 
56-60-5,  whereas  in  the  original  straw  it  was  only 

42% " 

The  above  process,  which  is  patented,  is  still  only 
in  the  experimental  stage,  so  it  remains  to  be  seen 
if  it  will  be  possible  to  use  it  in  actual  practice. 

7.  The  heating  of  fodder  with  dilute  hydrochloric 
acid  and  neutralisation  of  the  acid  with  soda 
diminishes  the  digestibility,  particularly  the  protein, 
and  as  the  process  is  costly  it  has  no  advantages. 


PREPARATION    OF    FEEDING-STUFFS    145 

8.  The  malting  of  grains  and  the  preparation  of 
sweet  mashes. 

The  preparation  of  green  malt  for  feeding  pur- 
poses is  not  to  be  recommended,  for  the  germination 
of  the  grain  causes  considerable  loss  of  easily 
digestible  nutrients.  It  has  been  observed  that 
from  100  kilos  of  barley  2-5-3  kilos  of  starch  were 
lost  during  four  days'  germination,  whilst  after  nine 
days  the  loss  reached  5-6  kilos.  The  proteins  were 
also  decomposed,  and  in  the  first  period  of  germina- 
tion 20-30%  were  changed  into  non-protein  sub- 
stance. Seeds  such  as  those  of  the  lupine,  which 
have  an  unpleasant  taste,  are  not  improved  by 
germination,  so  that  in  cases  of  this  kind  no  benefit 
results  from  "  malting."  Sometimes  a  sweet  mash 
is  prepared  from  potatoes  with  the  help  of  small 
quantities  of  malt  (0-3-0-5  lb.  per  100  lbs.  potatoes), 
and  this  when  freshly  prepared  is  readily  eaten, 
and  with  good  results.  It  is  very  apt,  though,  to 
cause  scouring  when  it  has  stood  for  some  time  and 
become  sour. 

Such  sweet  mashes  should  always  be  used  quickly, 
for  otherwise  the  spores  of  yeasts  in  the  air  can 
cause  them  to  undergo  alcoholic  fermentation  and 
to  have  an  objectionable  effect  upon  the  animal 
(p.  119).  Very  good  results  are  obtained  with 
calves  and  young  pigs  from  a  sweet  mash  prepared 
in  the  following  way  according  to  Liebig's  directions. 
For  each  calf  take  3J  quarts  of  milk,  3-J-  quarts  of 

L 


146  SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING    OF    ANIMALS 

water,  10  oz.  of  wheat  flour,  10  oz.  of  ground  malt, 
and  i  oz.  potassium  bicarbonale.  The  method  of 
preparation  is  as  follows.  The  flour  is  boiled  with 
the  water  and  half  of  the  milk  to  form  a  porridge, 
and  when  this  is  cold  the  other  half  of  the  milk,  in 
which  the  potassium  bicarbonate  is  dissolved,  is 
added,  and  the  ground  malt  stirred  in.  The  mix- 
ture is  then  allowed  to  stand  for  half  an  hour  in  a 
warm  place,  then  once  more  boiled  and  sieved 
through  muslin.  Lately  saccharified  starch  has 
been  recommended  as  an  addition  to  skim  milk  in 
the  rearing  of  calves  ;  further  particulars  regarding 
this  will  be  found  in  the  third  part  of  this  volume. 

9.  The  predigestion  of  food  by  gastric  or  pan- 
creatic juice  has  been  tried  on  waste  meat  and  fish 
products,  blood  from  slaughter  houses,  milk  and 
waste  dairy  products.  This  is  an  entirely  useless 
process,  for  the  above  products  require  no  pre- 
digestion, being  easily  digested  by  a  normal  animal, 
and  the  process  takes  place  better  in  the  body  than 
outside  of  it.  It  is  certainly  no  accident  that 
the  proteins  as  a  rule  enter  the  digestive  apparatus 
in  an  insoluble  form.  Even  where  they  are  in  a 
fluid  state,  as  in  milk,  they  are  curdled  in  the 
stomach  in  order  to  be  gradually  digested  (p.  23). 
Healthy  animals  do  far  better  without  artificial 
digestion  of  their  food,  and  sick  ones  require  profes- 
sional treatment,  not  the  undiscerning  use  of  any 
artificial  nutrient. 


PREPARATION    OF    FEEDING-STUFFS    147 

10.  The  preparation  of  food  by  fermentation. 

Ground  cereals,  feeding  meals,  bran,  etc.  are  some- 
times made  into  a  dough,  then  raised  by  means  of 
a  little  sour  dough,  and  after  twenty-four  hours  or 
so  are  fed.  The  object  of  this  is  to  improve  the 
flavour,  but  there  is  not,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  any 
advantage,  rather  a  disadvantage,  for  the  diges- 
tibility of  the  food-stuff  is  thereby  diminished. 

An  experiment  with  wheat  bran  showed  that 
before  fermentation  75*5%  of  the  organic  matter 
was  digestible,  whilst  afterwards  only  67-3%. 
Similarly  with  the  crude  protein,  of  which  82-2% 
was  digestible  in  the  original  bran,  but  afterwards 
only  79-1%. 

Scalding,  boiling,  or  steaming  are  less  trouble- 
some processes  and  are  better  suited  for  the  purpose 
than  is  the  fermentation  method. 

11.  In  the  preparation  of  sour  food  by  fermenta- 
tion, chopped  straw  or  hay,  chaff,  green  fodder, 
roots,  and  sometimes  distillery  waste  are  used. 
All  these  substances  are  well  mixed,  the  mangels 
and  potatoes  having  been  previously  sliced,  a  little 
salt  added  and  then  enough  water  or  distillers' 
wash  to  make  a  mixture  from  which  the  liquid  does 
not  drain  away  when  it  is  squeezed  in  the  hand. 
The  whole  is  then  made  into  heaps  about  three  feet 
wide  and  two  feet  high,  well  beaten  down  and 
covered  with  straw,  upon  which  boards  and  stones 
are    laid.     Fermentation    soon    begins,    depending 


148   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

upon  the  temperature  of  the  place  in  which  the 
heap  is  made,  and  after  about  forty-eight  hours 
the  material  is  ready  to  be  used.  The  object  of 
such  a  process  is  to  improve  the  flavour  of  food 
substances,  which  otherwise  would  not  readily  be 
eaten.  As  fermentation  is  always  accompanied  by 
loss  of  nutrients  such  concentrated  foods  as  oil 
cakes,  ground  corn,  bran,  etc.  should  not  be  used. 
In  years  when  it  is  necessary  to  feed  a  lot  of  straw, 
the  above-mentioned  fermentation  process  provides 
a  welcome  change.  The  fermented  fodder  has  a 
pleasant  fruit-like  smell,  and  is  best  suited  to  grown 
cattle  ;  if  given  to  cows  it  is  apt  to  impart  an  un- 
pleasant taste  to  the  milk,  particularly  if  it  has 
lain  for  some  time  or  has  not  been  cleanly  prepared. 

12.  The  manufacture  of  feeding  loaves. 

For  this  purpose  the  various  feeding  flours, 
ground  corn,  and  leguminous  seeds,  bran,  flesh,  and 
hsh  meals,  and  blood  meal  are  used.  Sometimes 
also  old  bread,  milk,  whey,  molasses,  potatoes,  chaff, 
chopped  hay,  etc.  The  dough  made  from  some 
such  suitable  material  generally  gets  an  addition  of 
salt,  sometimes  also  a  little  flavouring,  such  as 
aniseed,  and  after  being  raised  by  sour  dough,  or 
yeast,  is  baked.  If  the  materials  chosen  give  a 
sufficiently  light  loaf  the  fermentation  may  be 
dispensed  with. 

As  such  loaves  are  apt  to  become  mouldy,  it  is 
preferable,  if  they  have  to  be  kept  for  some  time, 


PREPARATION    OF    FEEDING-STUFFS    149 

to  make  them  into  a  kind  of  biscuit.  Such  pre- 
parations are  practically  never  used  except  in  the 
case  of  fodder  for  army  horses  during  a  campaign. 
The  loaves  are  said  to  be  an  excellent  substitute 
for  oats,  but  if  they  are  bought  and  not  home-made 
care  must  be  taken  that  the  materials  of  which 
they  are  made  are  not  merely  rubbish. 


CHAPTER  IV 

DESCRIPTION   OF  THE   FEEDING-STUFFS 

(i)    Green  fodder  and  hay. 

THESE  consist  of  the  parts  of  plants  growing 
above  ground  which  have  not  yet  completed 
their  growth,  and  so  contain  considerable  quantities 
of  chlorophyll.     Their  value  depends  upon — 

(a)  The  age  of  the  plant,  as  is  seen  from  the 
following  examples,  which  give  the  composition  of 
various  plants  at  different  stages  of  growth. 

I.  Meadow  grass  harvested  from  plots  which 
corresponded  to  one  another  on  the  same  meadow 
on  14  May,  9  and  26  June.  The  first  crop  was 
about  equal  in  food  value  to  green  fodder,  the 
second  crop,  cut  at  the  usual  time  of  hay  harvest, 
corresponded  to  a  meadow  hay  harvested  under 
favourable  conditions.  The  third  crop  was  over- 
grown, the  stems  of  the  plants  being  very  coarse. 
The  composition  of  the  three  varieties  of  hay 
reckoned  upon  the  same  percentage  of  water — 15% 
— was  as  follows — 

150 


DESCRIPTION    OF    FEEDING-STUFFS    151 


1  Crop. 

% 

2  Crop. 

% 

3  Crop. 

% 

Water. 

-    i5-o 

15-0 

15-0 

Crude  protein 

16-1 

9*5 

7-2 

Crude  fat     . 

.      2-9 

2-3 

2-3 

Crude  fibre  . 

21-0 

29-6 

32-4 

Nitrogen-free  extract   . 

37'3 

36-8 

36-9 

Mineral  substances 

.      77 

6-8 

6-2 

Pure  protein 

10-5 

8-0 

67 

Amides 

5'6 

i-5 

o-5 

The  latter  in  percentage  0 

f 

crude  protein    . 

34-8 

15-8 

6.9 

2.  Red  clover  in  second  year  of  growth,  harvested 
on  9, 17,  and  23  May,  19  and  26  July,  and  23  August. 


1. 

2. 

3- 

4- 

5- 

6. 

Flowers 

Flowers 

Flowers 

not 

hardly 

notice- 

In 

In  full 

d 

evelopcd. 

noticeable 

able. 

flower. 

bloom. 

Ripe. 

In  the  fresh  plants — 

Water  . 

88-0 

88-2 

871 

77-5 

773 

65-2 

Dry  matter  . 

I20 

xi-8 

12-9 

225 

227 

34-S 

In  the  dry  matter — 

Crude  protein 

29-2 

245 

231 

214 

17-3 

170 

„      fat      . 

50 

56 

5-2 

55 

44 

5-1 

,,      fibre  . 

20-9 

246 

22-2 

256 

371 

395 

Nitrogen-free  extract 

35-6 

33-2 

383 

38-4 

32-9 

311 

Crude  ash 

n-3 

121 

1 1-2 

9-1 

8-3 

7-3 

Pure  protein     . 

17-5 

172 

15-5 

160 

136 

150 

Amides    . 

117 

73 

7-6 

5-4 

37 

20 

The  latter  in  percen- 

tage of  crude  protein 

40-1 

298 

32-9 

252 

21-4 

II-8 

These  tables  show  very  well -some  of  the  similar- 
ities which  are  found  in  most  fodder  plants.  The 
figures  for  red  clover  show  that  the   amount  of 


152   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF    ANIMALS 

water  in  fresh  plants  decreases  with  growth,  whilst 
the  dry  matter  increases,  also  that  the  components 
of  the  latter  alter  in  certain  directions.  During  the 
development  the  amounts  of  crude  protein,  proteins 
and  non-proteins,  and  also  the  mineral  substances 
regularly  decrease,  whilst  the  crude  fibre  increases. 
In  the  early  stages  of  growth  the  plant  takes  up  a 
lot  of  nitrogenous  food  and  converts  it  gradually 
into  protein,  whilst  at  a  later  period  the  production 
of  nitrogen-free  substances  predominates.  The 
higher  the  plant  grows  so  much  greater  are  the 
demands  made  upon  the  supporting  powers  of  the 
stem,  and  it  becomes  richer  in  crude  fibre.  For 
this  purpose  a  part  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract  is 
converted  into  crude  fibre,  and  in  it  from  the  time 
of  flowering  chemical  changes  take  place  which 
result  in  the  formation  of  incrusting  materials, 
which  make  the  fibre  woody.  After  flowering 
there  is  also  a  movement  of  nitrogenous  and  nitro- 
gen-free substances  from  the  green  organs  of  the 
plants  to  the  seeds  and  fruits,  whereby  the  percent- 
age composition  of  the  stem  and  leaves  in  crude 
fibre  is  increased.  In  the  case  of  root  crops  the 
materials  formed  during  the  first  year  in  the  green 
parts  of  the  plant  pass  into  the  roots,  or  tubers. 

As  the  degree  of  lignification  stands  in  a  certain 
relation  to  the  digestibility  of  fodder  plants  it  is 
clear  that  the  older  plants  must  contain  a  smaller 
quantity  of  digestible  material  than  do  the  younger. 


DESCRIPTION    OF    FEEDING-STUFFS    153 

This  has  been  repeatedly  shown,  and  a  good  ex- 
ample is  furnished  by  the  three  crops  of  meadow 
grass  whose  composition  was  given  on  page  151. 
The  digestibility  trials  were  with  sheep,  and  the 
following  figures  were  obtained — 


Percentage  quantities  of 

Digest 

bility  coe 

fficients. 

digestible  substa 

nces. 

I  St 

and 

3rd 

1st 

2nd 

3rd 

Crop. 

Crop. 

Crop. 

Crcp. 

Crop. 

Crop. 

Crude  protein  • 

733 

721 

555 

u-8 

6-8 

40 

,,     fat 

654 

51-6 

433 

19 

1-2 

i-o 

,,     fibre 

795 

657 

611 

167 

19-5 

19-8 

Nitrogen-free  extract 

757 

619 

557 

28-2 

22-S 

205 

Organic  matter 

75-8 

643 

57-5 

586 

50-3 

453 

Pure  protein    . 

591 

667 

51-9 

6-2 

53 

35 

Amides   . 

100 

100 

100 

5"6 

i-5 

°-5 

The  latter  in  percen- 

tage of  pure  protein 

— 

— 

— 

47-5 

22- 1 

125 

Similar  experiments  to  those  with  meadow  grass 
have  been  carried  out  with  red  clover.  Three 
portions  of  a  well-grown  field  of  clover  were  chosen, 
the  first  plot  cut  on  20  May,  when  the  green  in- 
florescences were  just  visible,  the  second  on  7  June 
was  in  full  flower,  and  the  third  on  20  June  when 
two- thirds  of  the  flower  heads  had  lost  their  colour. 
All  were  well  harvested  in  spite  of  some  rain, 
and  a  digestibility  trial  gave  the  following  figures, 
which  are  reckoned  on  the  assumption  that  the  hay 

in  each  case  contained  16%  water.* 
v. 

*  In  these  experiments  the  non-protein  nitrogenous  substances  in 
the  food  were  not  determined,  for  at  that  time  this  group  of  substances 
was  not  thought  to  be  so  generally  distributed  as  it  is  now  known 
to  be. 


154  SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 


Digest  ibil 

ty 

ties  c 

f  digestible 

Co 

mposition. 

coefficients. 

nutrients. 

Lots. 

"* 

Lots. 

Lots. 

i. 

2. 

3- 

1. 

2. 

3- 

1. 

*•           3- 

Water  . 

160 

160 

l6-0 

— 

— 

— 

Crude  protein 

164 

137 

III 

709 

650 

58-8 

u-6 

89      65 

„      fat       . 

19 

24 

2-4 

580 

64-4 

6o-2 

11 

15       14 

,,      fibre    . 

213 

236 

242 

50-6 

46-6 

39-8 

108 

no      96 

Nitrogen-free 

extract 

359 

37-8 

406 

70-2 

68-4 

66-3 

25-3 

259    270 

Pure  ash 

8-5 

65 

57 

— 

— 

— 

— 

—        — 

Organic 

matter 

75-5 

77-5 

78-3 

646 

610 

568 

48-8 

47-3    445 

Percentage  quanti- 


With  those  plants  which  are  cultivated  for  hay, 
and  where  it  is  desirable  to  preserve  as  much  of  the 
digestible  nutrients  as  possible,  it  is  seen  from 
these  investigations  that  the  best  time  for  harvest 
is  usually  during  the  first  half  of  the  flowering 
period.  If  the  grass  is  cut  earlier,  although  the 
percentage  amount  of  digestible  material  may  be 
higher,  the  total  quantity  is  still  small.  A  food 
richer  in  nutrients  but  of  less  value  is  obtained  when 
the  harvest  is  taken  some  time  after  flowering.  The 
balance  of  profit  seems  to  lie  with  the  early  harvest, 
for  then  the  quality  is  superior  although  the  quantity 
suffers. 

(b)  The  nutritive  value  of  the  fodder  plants 
depends  also  to  a  certain  measure  upon  the  variety. 
Between  the  various  cultivated  forms  of  one  and 
the  same  species  of  plant  great  variations  are 
observed.  These  manifest  themselves  in  many 
ways,  the  chief  being  the  difference  in  time  of  growth, 
the  weight  of  produce  and  the  formation  of  stem 


DESCRIPTION    OF    FEEDING-STUFFS    155 

and  leaves.  As  the  leaves  are  considerably  more 
nutritious  than  the  stem,  those  fodder  plants  which 
have  the  most  leaf  in  the  same  weight  of  produce 
are  to  be  preferred. 

(c)  The  distance  apart  at  which  the  plants  are 
placed  is  also  important,  for  usually  there  are 
stronger  stems  and  fewer  leaves  where  plants  grow 
wide  apart.  Thin  sowing  gives  then  coarser  fodder 
than  thick  sowing,  and  the  latter  is  to  be  preferred, 
both  on  that  account  and  because  of  the  greater 
yield. 

(d)  Soil  and  manuring  have  very  great  influence 
on  the  nutritive  value  of  fodder.  This  is  particu- 
larly noticeable  in  meadows  and  permanent  pastures, 
where  in  the  struggle  for  existence  only  those  plants 
survive  which  are  under  conditions  where  they  can 
obtain  their  nutrition.  The  differences  in  moisture 
and  temperature  of  the  soil,  the  presence  in  it  of 
lime  or  acids,  all  tend  to  favour  the  growth  of  one 
or  more  varieties  of  the  natural  flora.  The  result 
is  that  on  the  one  hand  clovers,  vetches,  and  sweet 
grasses  may  flourish,  whilst  other  conditions  bring 
forward  rushes,  horse-tails,  or  plants  that  grow  well 
on  a  sour  soil.  Only  radical  methods  of  cultivation, 
such  as  draining,  irrigation,  liming,  plentiful  manur- 
ing with  potash  or  phosphoric  acid  can  effect  any 
alteration  ;  the  sowing  of  other  seeds  is  quite  useless 
unless  the  conditions  are  altered  in  some  of  the 
above  ways.     As  regards  the  influence  of  manure 


156   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF    ANIMALS 

upon  the  composition  of  the  fodder  plants,  it  is 
well  known  that  a  plentiful  addition  of  nitrogenous 
fertilisers,  where  the  supply  of  nitrogen  is  otherwise 
sufficient,  tends  to  improve  the  growth  and  to  raise 
the  percentage  of  protein  and  nitrogenous  sub- 
stances of  a  non -protein  nature  in  the  plant.  This 
is  particularly  the  case  with  the  grasses  and  with 
many  other  plants  which  do  not  belong  to  the  order 
of  the  Leguminosae. 

Plants  of  a  richer  nature,  such  as  oats,  barley, 
rye,  and  wheat,  contain,  for  example,  16-4%  crude 
protein  in  the  dry  matter  at  the  beginning  of 
flowering,  as  against  10-4%  found  in  the  ordinary 
grasses.  As  a  rule  the  crude  fibre  also  increases 
after  plentiful  nitrogenous  manuring,  whereby  the 
nutritive  value  of  the  fodder  is  somewhat  reduced  ; 
very  luxuriant  plants  are  usually  more  fibrous  and 
less  palatable.  Practical  experience  has  also  shown 
that  the  feeding  value  of  such  fodder  is  not  particu- 
larly high,  a  good  example  being  afforded  in  the 
hay  made  from  irrigation  meadows.  One  very 
noticeable  effect  of  manuring  is  seen  where  manures 
of  a  similar  nature  are  repeatedly  put  upon  meadows 
possessing  otherwise  good  soil  conditions.  Some 
particular  varieties  of  plants  are  in  this  way  stimu- 
lated, whilst  others  disappear.  Repeated  annual 
applications  of  sulphate  of  ammonia  particularly 
favour  the  growth  of  some  grasses  at  the  expense 
of  clover,   vetches,   etc.     On    the    other    hand,   a 


DESCRIPTION    OF    FEEDING-STUFFS     157 

potash-phosphate  manure,  without  nitrogen,  tends 
very  largely  to  induce  the  valuable  leguminous 
plants.  The  causes  of  this  are  to  be  found  in  the 
special  requirement  of  the  two  classes  of  plants  ; 
grasses  need  nitrogen,  whilst  the  Leguminosae  can 
get  their  supply  of  this  element  from  the  atmosphere 
provided  they  have  sufficient  potash  and  phos- 
phates. 

If  more  mineral  substances  are  at  the  disposal  of 
the  plant  than  it  requires  for  growth,  it  nevertheless 
takes  up  some  of  the  excess,  a  circumstance  which 
is  of  great  importance  as  regards  the  supply  of  lime 
and  phosphoric  acid  to  domestic  animals. 

(e)  The  weather  conditions  during  growth  in- 
fluence not  only  the  quantity,  but  also  the  com- 
position of  the  fodder  plants.  In  wet  years  the 
plants  usually  contain  more  water  and  grow  to 
a  greater  height.  The  stem,  which  is  rich  in  crude 
fibre,  thereby  increases  at  the  expense  of  the  more 
valuable  leaves,  and  a  coarse  food  less  palatable  and 
nutritious  is  the  result.  A  period  of  drought,  on 
the  other  hand,  causes  the  plants  to  be  shorter 
and  more  compact,  with  small  leaves  and  stems, 
which  quickly  lignify.  If  the  drought  is  long- 
continued  the  entrance  of  mineral  substances  into 
the  roots  is  prevented,  and  so  the  fodder  is  poor  in 
lime  and  phosphoric  acid,  and  may  give  rise  to 
diseases  of  the  bones. 

(/)  The  fodder  plants  have  a  different  effect  in 


158   SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

production,  according  to  whether  they  are  fed 
green  or  as  hay.  In  the  latter  case  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  nutrients  is  always  lost  by  respira- 
tion, crumbling,  fermentation,  etc.,  and  there  is 
extra  energy  required  for  the  work  of  mastication 
and  digestion  (p.  88).  It  therefore  follows  that 
the  green  fodder  has  more  feeding  value  than  the 
hay  prepared  from  it ;  this  quite  apart  from  the 
expense  of  hay-making.  When  it  is  possible  to 
use  the  food  in  a  green  state,  it  is  preferable  to  do 
this  and  not  to  limit  the  green  feeding  unless  there 
are  special  reasons.  Fodder  plants  can  be  fed  to 
all  domestic  animals,  but  there  are  limitations 
depending  upon  the  kind  of  fodder  and  the  species 
of  the  animal.  First  of  all  a  sudden  change  to 
green  food  should  be  avoided.  Further,  owing  to 
the  large  quantity  of  water  in  the  green  plant, 
relatively  large  quantities  have  to  be  consumed 
which  is  often  burdensome  to  the  animal  and  apt  to 
lead  to  an  ugly  distension  of  the  belly.  Draught 
oxen  and  high-class  horses  require  to  be  limited  in 
the  amount  of  green  food  which  they  get.  Caution 
is  also  necessary  on  account  of  the  large  quantities 
of  gas  which  are  formed  in  the  stomach  when  such 
fodder  is  being  fed,  and  this  is  particularly  the  case 
when  the  grass,  clover,  etc.  has  been  wet  by  dew 
or  rain,  or  left  so  long  in  a  heap  that  it  has  begun 
to  heat.  In  this  respect  clover  is  the  most  dangerous 
of  these  green  foods  and  is  very  apt  to  cause  dis- 


DESCRIPTION    OF    FEEDING-STUFFS    159 

tension.  Following  upon  these  general  statements 
a  short  description  of  the  various  green  foods  and 
hay  may  be  briefly  mentioned  here.* 

1.  Fodder  from  pastures  and  meadows. 

The  value  of  the  food  obtained  from  natural 
grass  lands  depends  in  the  first  place  upon  the 
plants  which  have  become  established  in  any  par- 
ticular soil.  Viewed  from  the  practical  standpoint 
these  plants  may  be  divided  into  (a)  grasses, 
(b)  clovers,  (c)  plants  belonging  to  other  families. 

Amongst  the  grasses,  such  examples  as  rye  grass, 
meadow  grass,  meadow  oat-grass,  timothy,  meadow 
foxtail,  brome  grass,  etc.  are  noted  for  their  palat- 
ableness  and  other  valuable  properties.  In  opposi- 
tion to  these  are  sedge  grasses,  rushes,  sedges,  etc., 
which  diminish  the  feeding  value  considerably. 
The  clovers  and  vetches  are  almost  all  reckoned 
amongst  the  best  fodder  plants,  whilst  amongst  the 
herbs  are  a  lot — burnet,  thyme,  scabiosa, .  etc. — 
which  give  a  valuable  fodder. 

A  fodder  which  contains  a  large  quantity  of  sweet 
grasses  and  clovers  is  more  valuable  than  one  com- 
posed largely  of  those  grasses  which  flourish  on  poor 
or  acid  soils.  The  reason  of  this  is  not  so  much  to 
be  sought    in  the  actual  differences    in  chemical 

*  In  the  description  of  the  several  food-stuffs  the  author  has 
refrained  from  giving  particulars  as  to  their  composition  and  digesti- 
bility. Tables  I  and  II  in  the  Appendix  show  the  differences  in  composi- 
tion more  clearly  than  could  be  done  in  words.  The  reader  is  par- 
ticularly recommended  to  look  through  these  from  time  to  time. 


i6o    SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

composition,  for  both  types  of  grass  contain  about 
the  same  amount  of  nutrient  substances.  It  is 
rather  that  in  the  one  case  the  fodder  is  palatable, 
although  digestibility  trials  would  perhaps  show 
that  the  coarser  grasses  are  not  so  well  digested 
on  account  of  the  higher  percentage  of  silica  which 
they  contain  and  which  doubtless  acts  as  do  the 
incrusting  materials  in  the  crude  fibre  of  hay  or 
straw.  Further,  it  must  be  noted  that  the  sharp 
particles  of  the  coarse  grasses  have  an  irritant 
effect,  often  indeed  cause  injury  to  the  mucous 
membrane,  and  thereby  diminish  the  food  meta- 
bolism in  the  animal. 

In  order  to  maintain  a  compact  growth  of  plants 
in  permanent  pastures  care  has  to  be  taken  that  the 
development  of  the  stem  shall  not  take  place.  As 
animals  grazing  on  the  pasture  also  bite  off  certain 
plants  very  completely,  the  flora  has  an  entirely 
different  character  to  that  of  meadows  in  the  same 
position.  English  and  Italian  rye  grasses,  timothy, 
cock's  foot,  dog's  tail,  and  the  different  fescues 
have  proved  themselves  good  lasting  varieties  for 
permanent  pastures,  whilst  amongst  the  clovers, 
the  red,  and,  on  dry  soil,  the  yellow  varieties  are 
also  very  successful.  As  the  leaf  surface  upon 
which  the  formation  of  fresh  organic  matter  depends 
never  reaches  the  extent  in  pasture  plants  that  it 
does  in  meadow  plants,  the  weight  of  the  harvest 
from  the  former  is  often  30-60%  less  than  from  the 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING-STUFFS     161 

latter.  Pastures,  however,  yield  a  very  nutritious 
fodder ;  it  has  been  found  in  ioo  kilos  dry  matter, 
from  the  grass  of  good  pastures,  that  io-6  kilos  of 
digestible  protein  were  present,  and  the  starch  value 
of  the  fodder  was  equivalent  to  60  kilos.  These  are 
figures  which  approach  those  got  from  many  grains. 

Meadow  grass  at  the  time  when  it  is  usually  fed  in 
a  green  state  is  generally  somewhat  more  developed, 
and  therefore  is  poorer  in  protein  and  richer  in 
crude  fibre  and  nitrogen- free  extract  substances  than 
pasture  grass. 

Meadow  hay  shows  the  greatest  differences  in 
composition  of  any  natural  fodder.  On  the  one 
hand,  where  the  grass  is  cut  late  and  the  weather 
is  unfavourable,  a  hay  may  be  got  which  in  nutritive 
value  is  below  that  of  good  straw.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  fertile,  low-lying  meadow  may  yield  a  hay, 
particularly  if  the  grass  is  cut  early,  which  equals 
pasture  grass  in  feeding  value. 

The  best  hay  is  got  from  sunny,  moderately 
moist  mountain  and  alpine  meadows,  for  there  the 
plants  are  short  and  close  together  and  mingled  with 
aromatic  herbs.  Such  hay  is  distinguished  not  so 
much  by  the  large  amount  of  protein  it  contains, 
as  by  its  tenderness,  aroma,  and  exceptional 
palatableness,  etc.  The  hay  from  damp  forest 
meadows  or  sour  soils  has  the  opposite  properties, 
for  it  is  composed,  for  the  most  part,  of  coarse, 
tasteless  grasses.     Irrigation  meadows  yield  a  hay 

M 


162   SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

which,  although  rich  in  protein,  is  coarse  stemmed 
and  lacks  aroma,  so  that  it  usually  requires  to  be 
mixed  with  some  good  hay  before  animals  will  take 
any  quantity  of  it. 

Good  hay  ought  to  be  made  from  tender,  leafy 
plants,  chiefly  the  sweet  grasses  and  clovers  cut  at 
the  commencement  of  flowering,  and  should  possess 
a  pleasant  smell  and  be  free  from  mud  and  dust. 

The  hay  from  the  aftermath  is  also  to  be  reckoned 
amongst  the  good  varieties,  if  harvested  in  favour- 
able weather,  but  it  is  usually  below  good  meadow 
hay  as  regards  palatableness  and  aroma.  Often 
at  the  time  of  harvesting  the  aftermath  cool,  rainy 
weather  is  prevalent,  so  that  it  suffers  more  than 
the  first  crop  on  account  of  the  large  quantities  of 
soluble  substances  it  contains,  and  which  are  washed 
out. 

2.  Seed  grasses,  such  as  rye  grass,  timothy, 
cock's  foot,  along  with  clover,  give  according  to 
their  age  a  fodder  which  is  usually  less  palatable, 
but  as  nourishing  as  meadow  hay  of  the  same  age. 
The  same  applies  to  cereals  such  as  rye,  wheat,  oats, 
or  barley,  which  are  sometimes  used  as  fodder. 

3.  Green  maize  in  comparison  with  other  fodder 
plants  is  fairly  rich  in  water  and  poor  in  protein, 
but  owing  to  the  large  amount  of  sugar  (4-6%) 
which  it  contains,  it  is  readily  consumed.  As  young 
green  maize  contains  up  to  90%  of  water  and  in 
addition  grows  quickly,  it  is  advisable  not  to  cut  it 


DESCRIPTION    OF    FEEDING-STUFFS    163 

too  soon ;  the  best  time  is  from  the  beginning  to 
the  end  of  the  flowering  period. 

Sorghum  (Kaffir  corn),  which  is  allied  to  maize,  has 
a  less  coarse  straw,  and  may  be  cut  several  times  in 
the  season.  It  is  richer  in  sugar  than  maize  and 
when  quite  young  it  contains,  like  young  linseed,  a 
substance  which  gives  rise  to  the  poisonous  prussic 
acid  in  the  stomach,  whereas  later  the  sorghum  is 
non-injurious. 

4.  The  clovers,  like  all  Leguminosse,  are  char- 
acterised by  a  high  percentage  of  crude  protein, 
which  before  flowering  can  be  as  much  as  30-34% 
of  the  dry  matter.  Considerably  more  non-protein 
nitrogenous  material  is  found  in  the  crude  protein 
than  in  the  grasses  (p.  151).  The  digestibility  of 
the  crude  protein  and  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract 
substances  is  in  general  slightly  higher  in  the 
clovers  than  in  the  grasses,  whilst  the  reverse  is  the 
case  with  the  crude  fibre. 

Red  clover,  up  to  the  time  of  flowering,  is  usually 
used  as  a  green  food.  At  a  later  stage  when  used 
for  the  same  purpose,  it  is  not  nourishing  enough  to 
be  the  sole  food  of  animals  and  is  then  generally 
made  into  hay.  The  second  crop  of  red  clover  is 
usually  richer  in  crude  protein  and  crude  fibre,  but 
somewhat  poorer  in  nitrogen-free  extract. 

On  account  of  its  heating  properties  red  clover 
should  only  be  fed  in  limited  quantities  to  horses 
and  sheep,  but  it  is  very  suitable  for  grown  cattle. 


164   SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

Pregnant  animals  and  young  stock  should  not  get 
more  than  half  their  coarse  fodder  in  the  form  of 
clover,  which  is  further  credited  with  causing  a 
yellowish,  badly  coloured  meat,  with  an  inferior 
flavour  when  given  as  green  food  to  pigs. 

Lucerne  stands  in  many  ways  very  close  to  the 
clovers,  both  as  regards  palatableness  and  the 
quantities  to  be  used,  only  it  is  on  an  average 
richer  in  crude  protein.  As  it  tends  to  get  woody 
even  before  flowering  it  is  best  to  cut  it  at  the  be- 
ginning of  that  period,  which  may  be  done  without 
fear  of  loss,  as  several  crops  can  be  taken.  The 
after-growth  following  the  first  and  second  crops  is, 
like  the  red  clover,  richer  in  crude  protein  and  crude 
fibre,  but  poorer  in  nitrogen-free  extract  sub- 
stances. 

Sainfoin  is  another  leguminous  crop  which  in  its 
different  periods  of  growth  somewhat  resembles  red 
clover;  it  should  be  cut  early  on  account  of  its 
strong  after-growth. 

Incarnate  clover,  an  annual  variety,  gives  when 
cut  early  a  fodder  similar  to  red  clover,  but  it 
lignifies  very  quickly  from  the  time  of  flowering. 

Bastard  clover,  also  called  Swedish  clover,  and 
still  more  white  clover,  retain  their  tender  proper- 
ties for  a  longer  period  and  can,  therefore,  be  left 
standing  until  the  end  of  the  flowering  period.  The 
same  applies  to  serradella. 

5.  The  kidney  vetch  contains  the  lowest  amount 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING-STUFFS     165 

of  protein  amongst  those  fodder  plants  that  will  be 
mentioned  here.  It  lignifies  slowly,  and  like  serra- 
della  is  remarkable  for  growing  well  on  sandy  soil. 
Owing  to  its  astringent  taste,  it  is  not  readily  eaten 
in  the  green  state  by  horses.  The  different  varieties 
of  vetches  when  cut  young  yield  a  fodder  very  rich 
in  protein,  but  which,  however,  quickly  become 
woody.  The  above-mentioned  plants  can  be  placed 
alongside  red  clover  as  regards  their  palatableness 
and  suitability  for  animals,  but  they  all,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  incarnate  clover,  sainfoin,  and  serradella, 
have  a  heating  action,  the  vetches  particularly. 

Lupines  are  often  not  cut  until  their  side  branches 
are  in  flower  and  the  main  stem  has  formed  seeds, 
but  sometimes  they  are  cut  before  flowering  in  order 
to  get  two  crops.  Fodder  from  lupines  has  always 
a  heating  effect,  and  in  some  years  all  parts  of  the 
plant — seeds,  straw,  chaff — contain  a  deadly  poison. 
This  is  a  protein-like  substance  probably  due  to 
the  action  of  some  fungus  which,  favoured  by  the 
conditions  of  weather,  emigrates  to  the  plant.  As 
the  poisoning  is  generally  fatal,  it  is  very  advisable 
to  make  a  feeding  test  for  a  few  weeks  on  some 
valueless  animal  (a  rabbit),  in  order  to  judge  if  the 
material  is  safe  to  use  as  food.  If  the  lupine  fodder 
is  shown  to  be  poisonous,  there  is  nothing  to  be 
done  but  to  steam  it  for  4-5  hours,  at  a  pressure  of 
60-80  lbs.  to  the  square  inch,  in  order  to  destroy  its 
poisonous    properties.     Simple    scalding,     or    the 


166   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

conversion  into  brown  or  sour  hay,  is  not  sufficient 
to  render  it  harmless.  Lupine  fodder  serves  princi- 
pally for  feeding  sheep,  which  take  it  readily,  whilst 
horses  and  cattle,  to  which  in  any  case  only  small 
quantities  should  be  given,  do  not  accustom  them- 
selves to  it  very  quickly.  Where  large  quantities 
of  lupines  are  fed  the  quality  of  the  milk  is  very  apt 
to  suffer. 

White  mustard  after  flowering  quickly  becomes 
woody,  and  must  on  that  account  not  be  left  later 
than  the  flowering  period  before  being  fed.  Another 
reason  for  feeding  the  plants  at  that  time  is  that  the 
seeds  when  eaten  form  mustard  oil  in  the  stomach, 
which  is  injurious.  In  order  that  this  crop  may  be 
fed  at  the  right  stage  of  growth  it  is  best  to  sow 
portions  at  different  times.  It  is  principally  fed  in 
moderate  quantities  to  dairy  stock,  sheep,  and 
young  cattle. 

Buckwheat,  which  is  generally  cut  at  the  height 
of  the  flowering  period,  should  be  fed  preferably  to 
cattle.  In  some  years  the  use  of  it  tends  to  cause 
sickness,  particularly  in  sheep  and  pigs. 

6.  The  leaves  and  tops  of  the  sugar  beet  and  the 
mangel  wurzel  give  a  very  watery  food,  the  dry 
matter  of  which,  however,  is  rich  in  protein,  low  in 
crude  fibre,  and  contains  a  large  percentage  of 
soluble  mineral  substances,  amongst  which  oxalic 
acid  (3-4%  of  the  dry  matter)  is  found.  This  acid 
may  be  consumed  in  small  quantities  without  any 


DESCRIPTION    OF    FEEDING-STUFFS    167 

ill  effects,  but  increased  amounts  cause  symptoms 
of  poisoning  and  may  lead  to  death.  Generally 
oxalic  acid  undergoes  partial  fermentation  in  the 
first  stomach  of  the  ruminants,  but  in  pigs  and 
horses  this  preventative  arrangement  fails.  It  is, 
therefore,  advisable  to  give  some  carbonate  of  lime 
(precipitated  chalk)  along  with  the  beet  tops  to 
render  the  oxalic  acid  insoluble  ;  a  similar  addition 
should  also  be  made  when  sour  fodder  or  silage  are 
fed.  On  an  average  a  quarter-pound  of  chalk  may 
be  given  to  250  lbs.  of  leaves. 

Mangel  or  beet  leaves  have,  in  any  form,  a 
loosening  effect  on  the  bowels,  and  should,  therefore, 
be  given  along  with  straw  or  hay.  A  third  of  the 
total  ration  of  a  dairy  cow  might  be  composed  of 
these  leaves,  whilst  a  fattening  bullock  could  be 
given  more.  The  earth  which  often  adheres  in 
large  amounts  to  the  leaves  and  heads  should  al- 
ways be  washed  off.  Generally,  the  greater  part 
of  the  mangel  leaves  are  made  into  sour  fodder, 
but  lately  machinery  has  been  erected  for  the 
purpose  of  drying  this  valuable  food  (p.  135).  Up 
to  the  present,  however,  the  adhering  soil  has 
generally  not  been  sufficiently  removed  before 
drying,  and  that  has  led  in  some  instances  to  a 
partial  charring  of  the  material.  The  dried  leaves, 
when  properly  prepared,  have  a^  feeding  value  equal 
to  moderately  good  meadow  hay. 

The  leaves  of  carrots,  kohl-rabi,  and  turnips  do 


168   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

not  possess  any  properties  injurious  to  health,  nor 
does  cabbage,  which  is  highly  prized  for  feeding 
milch  cows.  The  haulms  of  potatoes  should  not 
be  used  as  fodder ;  they  are  very  indigestible  and 
contain  a  powerful  poison — solanine.  In  case  of 
necessity  they  may  be  made  into  sour  fodder,  but 
they  are  best  not  used. 

7.  Fodder  from  leaves  and  twigs.  The  leaves 
of  the  ordinary  foliage  trees  dried  in  July  or  August 
give  an  inferior  fodder  about  equal  to  poor  meadow 
hay,  but  which,  in  cases  of  necessity,  is  worth 
feeding. 

Some  leaves,  e.g.  beech,  oak,  alder,  hazel,  contain 
a  lot  of  tannin,  which  causes  them  to  have  a  con- 
stipatory  effect  if  eaten  in  large  quantities.  The 
leaves  of  the  poplar,  willow,  and  maple  make  the 
best  fodder,  whilst  the  needles  of  the  pine  and  fir 
act  injuriously  upon  the  digestive  and  urinary 
organs.  The  leaves  and  twigs  of  the  yew  contain 
a  deadly  poison.  Brushwood,  cut  in  winter,  has 
very  little  value  indeed  as  fodder,  the  woody 
fibre  being  hardly  digested  at  all;  the  twigs  of 
the  acacia  and  the  poplar  are  usually  the  best. 
Sawdust  is  only  very  slightly  acted  upon  by  the 
digestive  juices,  and  diminishes  the  value  of  the 
rest  of  the  food  (p.  90). 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING-STUFFS     169 

(2)  Chaff  and  straw. 
During  the  maturation  of  a  plant  the  nitrogenous 
and  non-nitrogenous  substances  are  transferred 
from  the  green  portions  of  the  plant  to  the  seeds, 
as  has  already  been  noticed  (p.  152).  At  this  time 
the  stems,  haulms,  etc.  undergo  lignification,  and 
after  the  ripening  of  the  fruit  there  remains  but 
little  protein,  fat,  and  nitrogen-free  extract  in  the 
straw  or  chaff,  the  quantity  varying  with  the 
completeness  of  ripening.  A  good  example  of  this 
is  seen  in  the  following  analyses  of  oat  straw  at 
three  different  periods  of  ripening — 


Nitrogen- 

Crude 

free 

Crude 

protein. 

Fat. 

extract. 

fibre. 

Ash. 

Unripe  . 

.       IO-I 

i-9 

50-6 

29-4 

8-o 

Ripe     . 

.      4'9 

1-2 

48'6 

37'8 

7'5 

Over-ripe 

•         4'3 

i-4 

36-9 

49.8 

7-6 

If  the  passage  of  substances  from  the  stem  and 
leaves  is  entirely  or  partially  prevented  in  any  way, 
as  when  the  plant  is  laid  by  hail,  rain,  wind,  or 
other  causes,  or  by  drought,  then  a  more  nutritious 
straw  is  obtained,  as  the  above  figures  show.  In 
consequence  of  such  conditions,  the  protein  content 
of  cereal  straw,  which  as  a  rule  is  only  2-3%,  can 
rise  to  6%  and  more.  Continued  wet  weather,  on 
the  other  hand,  causes  the  formation  of  a  straw  poor 
in  protein  and  rich  in  crude  fibre. 

Manuring  has  also  a  distinct,  although  usually 


170   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

small,  influence  upon  the  composition  of  the  straw, 
particularly  that  of  the  cereals.  The  nitrogenous 
manures  are  the  most  important,  and  raise  the 
percentage  of  protein  in  the  straw.  In  experiments 
carried  on  for  six  years  on  barley  straw,  the  average 
amount  of  crude  protein,  when  only  mineral  manures 
were  used,  was  2-88%,  but  a  manure  containing  a 
large  quantity  of  nitrogen  with  a  medium  amount 
of  minerals  raised  it  to  3-94%. 

In  the  straw  itself  the  nutrients  are  unevenly 
divided,  the  lower  parts  of  the  stem  containing 
more  woody  tissue  and  less  protein  than  the  upper. 
Similar  differences  are  also  seen  between  the  lower 
and  upper  leaves,  whilst  the  ears  are  richest  in 
protein  and  poorest  in  crude  fibre. 

Those  portions  of  the  straw  which  are  nearest 
to  the  seeds  are  the  most  valuable  for  feeding,  so 
it  is  sound  practice  to  allow  sheep  to  pick  over  the 
straw  intended  for  litter,  for  they  will  eat  the 
nutritious  portions,  which  are  almost  equal  to  good 
meadow  hay. 

1.  The  straw  of  the  cereals  belongs  to  those 
fodders  which  are  very  poor  in  protein  and  rich  in 
crude  fibre.  The  lignification  often  goes  so  far  that 
80%  of  the  digestible  nutrients  in  winter  wheat 
straw  is  required  to  furnish  energy  for  the  work 
of  mastication,  digestion,  etc.  (p.  8j),  whilst  with 
rye  straw  there  is  probably  even  less  available  for 
the   animal.     The   shorter   the   period   of  growth, 


DESCRIPTION    OF   FEEDING-STUFFS    171 

the  better  the  straw  is,  so  that  spring  sown  cereals 
give  a  more  valuable  feeding  straw  than  do  the 
autumn  sown.  Oat,  barley,  and  spring  wheat 
straws  are  of  about  equal  value,  and  barley  straw 
is  often  preferred  for  feeding  milch  cattle  without 
any  special  reason  being  given.  Autumn  sown 
straw,  on  account  of  its  smaller  nutritive  value,  is 
generally  used  for  litter,  either  before  or  after  sheep 
have  picked  it  over.  Straw  that  has  grown  and 
been  cut  along  with  other  plants — weeds,  clover, 
etc. — has  a  higher  feeding  value  than  straw  from 
well-cleaned  fields.  After  lying  for  a  long  time 
straw,  like  other  coarse  fodders,  loses  its  aroma 
and  brightness,  becomes  crumbly,  dusty,  and  flavour- 
less, and  is  then  best  given  as  chaff  mixed  with 
soft  food. 

2.  Straw  from  leguminous  plants  is  considerably 
more  nutritious  than  cereal  straw,  and  can  equal 
good  meadow  hay,  or  fairly  good  clover  hay,  in 
feeding  value.  As  a  rule  leguminous  straw  is 
coarse  stemmed,  less  palatable,  often  attacked  by 
moulds  and  liable  to  cause  constipation.  This  is 
especially  the  case  with  the  straw  from  vetches, 
beans,  and  peas,  which  sometimes  causes  sickness 
similar  to  that  noticed  after  feeding  with  lupines 
(p.  165).  A  tenderer  and  more  palatable  straw  is 
got  from  lentils  and  serradella..  Leguminous  straw 
can  only  be  fed  as  subsidiary  food  to  cattle  and 
sheep ;  horses  do  not  eat  it  readily. 


I 


172   SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

3.  Rape,  flax,  buckwheat  and  similar  plants  give 
a  straw  that  in  outward  properties  resembles 
coarse  leguminous  straw,  and  which  is  used  in  the 
same  way.  Buckwheat  straw  can  cause  the  buck- 
wheat sickness  (p.  166). 

4.  Chaff  is  principally  the  straw-like  husks  of  the 
seeds,  which  often  contain  a  lot  of  silica  along  with 
broken  leaves,  twigs,  imperfect  grains,  etc.  It  is 
usually  richer  in  nutrients  than  the  straw  of  the 
same  plant,  but  may  contain  a  lot  of  rubbish,  such  as 
sand,  earth,  dust,  weed  seeds,  spores  of  fungi,  etc., 
all  of  which  should  be  removed  as  far  as  possible 
before  feeding.  Amongst  the  varieties  of  cereal 
chaff  that  of  oats  and  non-awned  barley  is  the  most 
valuable,  then  comes  wheat  chaff,  whilst  that  of 
rye  is  only  slightly  digestible.  Rice  and  millet 
chaff  are  the  least  valuable  and  contain  a  lot  of 
woody  fibre,  and  silica.  Chaff  from  awned  cereals  is 
best  not  fed  at  all,  for  the  sharp  awns  bore  into  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  digestive  apparatus,  and 
may  give  rise  to  inflammation.  Sometimes,  too,  a 
fungus  (Actinomyces  bovis),  which  is  found  on  cereal 
straw,  causes  the  formation  of  abscesses  in  the  throat 
and  stomach.  Scalding  and  steaming,  which  kill 
the  fungus,  prevent  this,  for  if  the  awns  enter  the 
mucous  membrane  they  do  not  then  introduce  the 
living  fungus,  which  is  the  cause  of  the  disease. 

The  chaff  of  leguminous  seeds — peas,  vetches, 
beans,  lupines — is  about  equal  in  feeding  value  to 


\ 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FEEDING-STUFFS    173 

ordinary  red  clover  hay  ;  the  chaff  from  lentils 
and  clover  is  more  valuable,  whilst  the  husks  of 
peas,  beans,  and  vetches  approach  ordinary  meadow 
hay  in  value.  Rape,  mustard,  buckwheat,  and 
linseed  give  a  chaff  which  is  richer  in  fibre  and  more 
indigestible  than  cereal  chaff.  The  husks  of  many 
foreign  fruits — earth  nuts,  coffee  beans,  etc. — are 
of  no  value  as  food,  as  is  seen  on  p.  117.  Caution 
must  always  be  exercised  in  feeding  chaff,  for  there 
is  hardly  another  feeding-stuff  in  which  so  much 
that  is  dangerous  can  collect.  The  rubbish  in  the 
chaff  ought  to  be  sifted  out,  and  if  weed  seeds, 
spores,  etc.  are  there  the  chaff  ought  to  be  scalded, 
or  steamed. 

(3)   Roots  and  tubers. 

Roots  and  tubers  are  all  characterised  by  the 
amount  of  easily  digestible  carbohydrates — starch, 
sugar,  pectin  substances — which  they  contain.  A 
considerable  portion  of  the  crude  protein  (30-70%) 
is  not  in  the  form  of  proteins,  but  is  present  as 
amides. 

The  crude  fibre  is,  without  exception,  very  low, 
as  is  also  the  fat.  Amongst  the  mineral  substances 
potash  and  soda  predominate,  whilst  lime  and 
phosphoric  acid  are  only  present  in  small  quantities. 
On  account  of  the  high  percentage  of  water  which 
roots  and  tubers  contain  they  are  liable  to  cause 
a  weakening  of  the  digestive  organs  unless  some 


174   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

other  dry  matter  is  given  along  with  them.  It  is 
well  to  restrict  the  amount  of  roots  or  tubers  to 
£- j-  of  the  total  dry  matter  in  the  ration,  and  up 
to  this  point  they  have  a  very  beneficial  effect  on 
fattening  and  milch  cattle,  and  in  smaller  quantities 
on  young  stock  also.  Roots  are  less  suitable  for 
horses  which  have  to  work  at  a  rapid  pace,  for  they 
tend  to  cause  softness  and  liability  to  sweat,  but 
slow-working  animals  may  be  given  moderate 
quantities.  Foals  ought  only,  from  time  to  time, 
to  get  a  few  mangels.  Sheep  which  are  fed  con- 
tinuously on  such  watery  food  are  rather  liable  to 
sickness  and  disease,  but  pigs  do  very  well  on  large 
quantities  of  roots  and  tubers. 

On  account  of  their  cooling  and  slightly  purgative 
action,  mangels,  etc.,  are  useful  in  preventing 
torpidity  of  the  digestive  organs  and  constipation. 
As  a  good  deal  of  soil  adheres  to  roots  and  tubers,  it 
is  advisable  to  wash  them  before  they  are  given  to 
the  animals. 

I.  Plants  similar  to  the  beet  all  contain  con- 
siderable quantities  of  sugar,  the  dry  matter  of 
the  mangel  as  much  as  60%,  the  carrot  and  kohl- 
rabi 50%,  and  turnips  50-60%.  The  members 
of  the  beet  family  are  also  distinguished  by  con- 
taining a  large  amount  of  pectin  substances  which 
are  very  digestible,  but  starch  is  absent  except  in 
the  case  of  the  carrot.  They  also  agree  in  having 
a  high  percentage  of  non-protein  nitrogenous  sub- 


DESCRIPTION    OF    FEEDING-STUFFS    175 

stance  in  the  crude  protein  :  in  the  mangel  60% 
in  round  numbers,  and  in  the  carrot  and  kohl-rabi 
40%. 

It  may  be  noted  that  under  the  same  conditions 
all  the  varieties  of  the  beet  agree  in  that  with  in- 
crease in  size  of  the  individual  roots  the  water  in- 
creases and  the  dry  matter  decreases.  Variety  has 
also  an  influence  upon  the  weight  of  individual 
roots,  as  have  also  the  soil,  the  weather,  the  distance 
of  plants  apart,  and  the  manuring.  The  further 
the  plants  are  from  one  another,  the  heavier  the 
soil,  and  the  richer  the  manuring  with  nitrogenous 
manures,  so  much  larger  do  the  single  roots  become, 
and  so  much  less  the  percentage  of  dry  matter. 
With  an  increase  in  the  proportion  of  water  comes 
an  increase  in  the  quantity  of  crude  protein,  par- 
ticularly of  non-proteins,  in  the  dry  matter,  whilst 
the  percentage  of  sugar  decreases.  The  stripping 
off  of  the  leaves  of  beets  or  mangels  increases  the 
percentage  of  water  and  also  diminishes  the  crop. 

Mangels  are  a  particularly  good  food  for  dairy 
stock,  and  can  be  given  to  cows  in  quantities  of 
40-60  lbs.  per  head  per  day.  Fattening  cattle  may 
have  as  much  as  100  lbs.  per  day,  whilst  young,  or 
working,  animals  should  only  get  moderate  quanti- 
ties. Pigs,  according  to  their  age  and  weight,  may 
have  4-20  lbs. 

If  sugar  beets  are  used,  then  a  less  quantity 
should  be  given  on  account  of  the  larger  amount  of 


176   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

dry  matter  which  they  contain;  the  daily  rations 
given  above  may  be  reduced  by  about  one-half. 
Carrots  are  valued  for  the  effect  which  they  have  on 
the  general  health,  and  they  are  said  to  be  a  pre- 
ventative of  glanders,  intestinal  worms,  inflamma- 
tion of  the  digestive  organs,  as  well  as  being  useful 
against  the  heating  action  of  the  food  when  a  change 
is  made  to  winter  feeding.  Horses  should  not  be 
given  more  than  20  lbs.  of  sliced  carrots  per  head 
per  day,  dairy  cattle  up  to  60  lbs.,  fattening  bullocks 
up  to  80  lbs.,  and  young  animals  a  less  proportion. 
They  may  form  one  of  the  chief  articles  of  diet  for 
pigs,  and  should  be  given  either  cooked  or  steamed. 
Kohl-rabi  is  fed  much  in  the  same  quantities  as 
carrots,  but  it  is  best  to  restrict  the  daily  ration  of 
the  dairy  cow  to  20-30  lbs.,  for  otherwise  the  milk 
and  butter  acquire  the  taste  of  the  kohl-rabi.  This 
is  not  due  to  the  passage  of  the  flavouring  material 
of  the  food  into  the  milk  in  the  body,  but  to  the 
action  of  bacteria  which  are  present  on  the  kohl- 
rabi, and  get  into  the  milk  during  milking. 

If  the  milking  is  done  in  a  clean  place  where  the 
animals  have  not  been  fed,  and  if  the  cows  are  kept 
clean,  this  objection  to  the  otherwise  excellent  food 
is  removed,  and  larger  quantities  may  be  fed. 

Turnips  contain  the  most  water  of  all  roots,  and 
should  only  be  used  as  a  subsidiary  food  for  cows, 
fattening  cattle,  and  pigs.  In  the  case  of  dairy 
cows  not  more  than  20-25  lbs.  should  be  given,  for 


DESCRIPTION    OF    FEEDING-STUFFS    177 

this  food  tends  to  flavour  the  milk  and  butter  in  an 
objectionable  way. 

2.  Potatoes.  Starch  is  the  chief  constituent  of 
the  dry  matter  of  potatoes,  and  it  is  this  which 
forms  the  bulk  of  the  digested  material.  Crude  pro- 
tein and  fat  are  only  present  in  small  quantities, 
and  40%  or  so  of  the  former  is  in  the  form  of 
non-protein  nitrogenous  substances.  A  poisonous 
material  "  solanine  "  is  a  regular  constituent  of  all 
parts  of  the  potato  plant,  the  tubers  containing 
about  -i  gram  in  1  kilogram.  Although  this  poison 
does  not  increase  when  the  potatoes  are  stored, 
or  when  they  decompose,  it  passes  in  considerable 
quantities  into  the  young  shoots  when  the  tubers 
germinate,  so  that  the  sprouts  may  contain  as  much 
as  50  grams  per  kilogram.  This  means  that  the 
young  sprouts  should  not  on  any  account  be  used 
in  feeding.  Increase  of  the  solanine  to  three  times 
the  original  amount  was  also  noticed  when  the 
potatoes  were  placed  in  the  light  and  allowed  to  go 
green  on  one  side.  Scabby  potatoes  do  not, 
however,  contain  more  solanine  than  sound  ones, 
but  it  has  been  found  that  heavy  dressings  of 
nitrogenous  manures  cause  the  amount  of  this 
poison  to  increase. 

The  composition  of  potatoes  depends  upon  the 
same  conditions  as  it  does  in  the  case  of  mangels,  etc. 
After  wet  weather,  liberal  nitrogenous  manuring, 
early  harvest,  etc.  the  tubers  are  watery  and  poor 


178  SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

in  starch.  Large  quantities  of  kainit  produce  the 
same  effect,  whilst  40%  potash  salts  reduce  the 
dry  matter  very  little  or  not  at  all. 

There  is  on  all  sides  a  certain  dislike  to  feeding  raw- 
potatoes,  due  to  the  fact  that  they  possess  a  peculiar 
acrid  taste  and  increase  the  flow  of  digestive  juices  in 
the  stomach  and  intestines.  They  are  also  thought 
by  some  to  cause  colic,  purging,  distension,  lame- 
ness in  young  cattle,  and  abortion  in  pregnant  ones. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  when  raw  potatoes  have  been 
fed  either  for  a  long  time  or  in  large  quantities, 
some  of  the  above-mentioned  disturbances  have 
been  observed,  but  if  the  daily  supply  is  not  too 
large,  and  some  other  suitable  food  is  also  given, 
attention  being  paid  to  observe  any  injurious  effects, 
then  they  may  be  used.  Cattle  are  the  least  sensi- 
tive to  raw  potatoes,  and  a  fattening  ox  may  be 
given  50  lbs.  per  1000  lbs.  live  weight,  cows  in  milk 
25  lbs.  per  1000  lbs.  live  weight,  and  dry  cows  in  the 
last  stages  up  to  40  lbs. 

The  potatoes  must  be  sliced  and  added  gradually 
to  the  daily  ration,  also  when  they  have  to  be  dis- 
continued this  should  be  done  by  degrees.  Along 
with  them  some  soothing  food,  such  as  oil  cake 
(linseed,  sesame,  cocoa-nut),  and  a  good  supply  of 
coarse  fodder  is  necessary.  Feeding  stuffs  which 
have  an  irritant  effect  on  the  digestive  organs — 
rape  cake,  malt  coombs,  molasses,  silage — should 
not  be  fed  at  the  same  time. 


DESCRIPTION    OF    FEEDING-STUFFS    179 

Sheep  can  take  raw  potatoes  almost  as  well  as 
cattle,  and  should  be  given  up  to  25  lbs.  per  1000  lbs. 
live  weight ;  when  fattening  they  may  get  up  to 
40  lbs. 

Horses  are  more  easily  affected  by  raw  potatoes, 
but  small  quantities,  3-5  lbs.  per  head  per  day, 
have  a  beneficial  effect  on  the  general  condition. 
Slow-working  horses  can,  when  under  careful  super- 
vision, be  given  up  to  12  lbs.  per  day  for  each 
1000  lbs.  live  weight. 

It  is  always  important  to  feed  only  sound,  ripe 
tubers,  not  those  that  have  sprouted,  and  to  give 
them  and  withdraw  them  gradually.  Pregnant 
animals  and  young  stock  generally  had  better  not 
be  given  raw  potatoes.  For  pigs,  cooked  or  steamed 
potatoes  are  one  of  the  most  common  foods,  but 
raw  potatoes  are  not  suitable  for  these  animals. 

Potatoes  when  boiled  or  steamed  are  a  tasteless, 
non-irritant  food,  but  even  in  this  form  they  can 
easily  upset  the  digestive  organs.  The  water  which 
drains  away  from  the  potatoes  after  boiling  should 
not  be  used,  and  salt  should  be  added  to  the  potatoes 
to  make  them  more  palatable  ;  cattle  can  take  more 
of  the  boiled,  or  steamed  tubers,  than  the  raw  ones. 

Of  the  other  methods  of  preparing  potatoes  for 
food  mention  may  be  made  of  soaking  (p.  143), 
making  into  sweet  mash  (p.  145),  or  into  sour 
fodder. 

Recently  various  ways  of  drying  potatoes  have 


180  SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

been  tried,  and  a  material  which  keeps  well  and 
promises  to  have  a  great  future  has  been  prepared. 
The  digestibility  (see  Table  II  of  Appendix)  and  the 
effect  of  the  dried  potatoes  is  excellent,  whatever 
the  method  of  drying.  Where  the  potatoes  are 
dried  directly  by  the  fire  gases,  they  are  first  cut 
into  slices,  whereas  when  they  are  dried  by  steam 
they  are  steamed  and  then  passed  between  rollers 
heated  by  steam,  and  pressed  into  thin  flakes. 
When  moistened  and  mixed  with  chopped  hay,  or 
straw,  the  dried  potatoes  are  readily  eaten  by 
horses  and  cattle.  Sheep  take  them  dry,  whilst  for 
pigs  it  is  best  either  to  scald  them  or  soak  them  in 
water,  skim  milk,  or  whey. 

3.  The  tubers  of  artichokes  are  closely  allied 
to  potatoes  in  composition,  but  instead  of  starch 
they  contain  other  carbohydrates — lsevulin  and 
inulin — and  slightly  more  water.  Owing  to  the 
restricted  quantities  in  which  they  are  grown  they 
are  usually  only  a  supplementary  food.  Large 
quantities  cause  purging  and  make  the  milk  watery. 


(4)    Grains  and  seeds. 

The  composition  of  grains  and  seeds  is  influenced 
chiefly  by  the  condition  of  ripeness  at  the  time  of 
harvesting.  In  the  stream  of  materials  which 
flows  to  the  growing  seed,  it  is  found  that  at  the 
beginning  there  is  more  nitrogenous  and  mineral 


DESCRIPTION    OF    FEEDING-STUFFS    181 

matter  and  less  nitrogen-free  extract  than  at  a 
later  stage.  Unripe  grains  contain,  therefore,  more 
crude  protein  and  mineral  substances,  and  less 
carbohydrate  than  ripe  ones. 

Thus  it  was  found  that  the  dry  matter  in  maize 
varied  in  composition  according  to  the  state  of 
ripeness. 


Crude  protein  . 
Mineral  substances 

20th 
August. 

.     26-6 
.      57 

3rd 

September. 

i7'3 
3-o 

When 
ripe. 

127 

i-9 

Nitrogen-free  extract 

•     55-6 

71-6 

78-6 

The  amount  of  protein  substance  in  the  crude 
protein  was  also  subject  to  variation  according  to 
the  ripeness  of  the  grain,  for  in  the  26-6%  crude 
protein  on  20  August  there  were  n -2%  proteins  and 
15-4%  non-proteins,  whilst  the  127%  crude  protein 
in  the  ripe  grain  contained  10-9%  proteins  and  only 
1-8%  non-proteins. 

The  nitrogen-free  extract  is  also  subject  to 
variation  during  the  formation  of  the  seed.  In 
the  dry  matter  of  maize,  the  grains  being  still  milky, 
there  were  found  8-6%  cane  sugar,  6-i  %  glucose  and 
laevulose,  and  only  48-9%  starch.  In  the  ripe  grain 
the  sugar  had  almost  disappeared,  whilst  the  starch 
had  risen  to  64-3%.  Thus  it  is  seen  that  alongside 
the  movement  of  substances  to  the  ripening  seed 
there  are  also  chemical  changes  taking  place,  both  in 
the  nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous  ingredients. 


Nitrogen- 
free 
extract. 

Crude 
fibre. 

Ash. 

66-o 

12-5 

5'5 

68-8 

n-8 

4-o 

182   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF    ANIMALS 

When  the  normal  ripening  of  the  seeds  is  hindered, 
or  prevented,  then  they  are  not  only  small,  but  have 
also  the  properties  of  more  or  less  unripe  grains. 
This  is  clearly  seen  where  the  crop  is  laid  by  wind, 
rain,  or  hail,  or  where  it  is  attacked  by  disease. 
Drought  also  has  the  same  effect,  for  it  causes  too 
early  ripening. 

In  the  dry  matter  of  oat  grains  grown  on  the 
same  field  it  was  found  that  the  following  differ- 
ences in  composition  were  obtained — 

Crude 
protein.     Protein.    Amides.    Fat. 

Badly  laid     13-2     107     2-5     2-8 
Not  laid         io-8     io-o     o-8    4-6 

Even  when  no  apparent  obstacle  has  hindered  the 
formation  of  the  seeds,  it  is  still  found  that  some 
are  small  and  others  large.  When  during  bad 
weather  the  grain  sprouts  in  the  fields,  the  opposite 
effects  to  those  observed  during  ripening  are  found 
to  result.  First  the  materials  in  the  grain  are 
changed — protein  into  amides,  starch  and  fat  into 
sugar — and  these  pass  into  the  young  shoot  and 
root.  At  the  same  time,  a  portion  of  the  nitrogen- 
free  substance  is  destroyed  by  the  respiration  of  the 
young  plant  which  has  sprung  from  the  grain.  A 
loss  of  15%  or  more  of  valuable  food  material  can 
be  lost  according  to  the  extent  to  which  germina- 
tion has  taken  place.  As  germinated  seeds  such 
as  malt  contain  a  powerful  sugar-forming  ferment 


DESCRIPTION    OF   FEEDING-STUFFS    183 

they  can  be  used  for  the  conversion  of  starchy 
material  into  sugar. 

In  addition  to  the  changes  in  composition  of 
the  grain  due  to  the  time  of  harvesting,  there  is  the 
influence  of  the  soil,  manuring,  etc.  Where  the 
crop  has  been  thinly  sown  the  plants  are  generally 
stronger,  but  the  lateral  shoots  do  not  develop  so 
well,  and  only  small  flat  grains  are  obtained.  Thin 
sowing,  as  a  rule,  gives  grain  richer  in  protein  and 
carbohydrates,  and  poorer  in  fat  than  that  from 
thick  sowing.  Strong  soil  and  plentiful  manuring, 
with  nitrogenous  manures,  give  grains  of  higher 
protein  content.  In  the  case  of  barley  it  was  found 
from  tests  extending  over  six  years  that  on  un- 
manured  plots  the  protein  was  9-8%,  whilst  after 
heavy  manuring  with  nitrate  of  soda  it  rose  to  12-5  %. 

In  another  experiment  on  oats  on  the  unmanured 
soil,  they  contained  77%  crude  protein  and  3-8% 
fat,  whilst  where  nitrate  of  soda  was  used,  the  pro- 
tein rose  to  10-5%  and  the  fat  fell  to  2-9%.  If 
there  is  a  lack  of  water,  as  often  happens  on  a  light 
soil,  then  the  grains  are  somewhat  richer  in  protein 
than  those  grown  on  heavy  soils,  which  retain  water 
better.  The  richer  the  grains  are  in  nitrogen  the 
more  do  they  tend  to  become  "  hard,"  or  glutinous. 

It  has  already  been  seen  (p.  130)  that  when  cereal 
grains  are  stored  changes  are  found  in  the  amount 
of  nutrients  in  the  grains. 

When  buying  ground  cereals  care  must  be  taken 


i84  SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

to  see  that  they  contain  all  the  parts  of  the  grain, 
and  that  there  has  been  no  withdrawal  of  flour, 
or  the  addition  of  foreign  material,  both  of  which 
must  be  regarded  as  falsification.  Often  under 
the  name  of  ground  corn,  by-products  from  the 
manufacture  of  flour,  groats,  barley  are  sold,  and 
they  contain  a  large  amount  of  the  husks  or  seed 
coats.  Coarsely  ground  barley,  oat  and  pea  meals 
are  often  little  more  than  bran.  Sometimes  waste 
products  from  other  grains — husks  and  chaff  of  all 
sorts,  stone  nut  meal,  precipitated  chalk,  clay, 
earth,  sand,  marble  dust,  etc. — are  added  to  the 
meal.  Against  such  adulterations  the  analysis  of 
samples  from  each  consignment  is  the  only  remedy. 
With  regard  to  the  preparation  of  grains  for 
feeding,  they  are  usually  either  coarsely  or  finely 
ground,  or  crushed,  or  soaked  in  water,  as  has 
been  previously  described  (p.  138  et  seq.). 

(a)    Cereal  grains. 

Of  these  oats  are  the  most  used  for  feeding,  par- 
ticularly to  horses,  young  stock  or  male  breeding 
animals.  As  regards  palatableness  and  effect  oats 
are  the  best  of  the  cereals,  and  on  this  account 
they  are  used  as  concentrated  food  for  that  most 
sensitive  animal  the  horse,  and  they  are  seldom 
replaced  by  any  other  cereal,  at  any  rate  only 
partially.     Oats,    on    an   average,    contain    14-1% 


DESCRIPTION    OF   FEEDING-STUFFS   185 

crude  protein,  7-6%  crude  fat,  74%  nitrogen-free 
extract,  with  only  2-2%  crude  fibre  and  2-1%  ash. 
The  husks  of  the  oat,  on  the  other  hand,  have  only 
the  value  of  straw  (p.  117).  The  percentage 
quantity  of  husk,  which  varies  between  20-35% 
and  averages  26%  of  the  whole  grain,  is  therefore 
an  important  characteristic  in  judging  the  value 
of  the  grain. 

All  the  attempts  which  have  been  made  to  dis- 
cover to  what  special  substance,  if  any,  the  excellent 
properties  which  oats  possess  are  due,  have  up  to 
the  present  been  unsuccessful.  Horses  fed  on 
freshly  harvested  oats  have  frequently  been  found 
to  suffer  from  colic,  purging,  etc.  and  to  be  very 
liable  to  tire  and  sweat.  It  should  be  a  rule  to  let 
this  grain  lie  for  2-3  months  before  giving  it  to 
horses. 

Barley  comes  next  to  oats  in  its  properties  as  an 
animal  food,  and  in  southern  countries  it  is  the 
only  concentrated  grain  food  used.  In  Central 
and  Northern  Europe  it  has  not  succeeded  in  dis- 
placing oats,  for  it  has  been  noticed  that  its  effect 
on  the  energy  and  stamina  is  less  valuable  than  the 
latter.  It  is  not  advisable  to  replace  more  than 
one-third,  at  most  one-half,  of  the  oat  ration  by 
barley,  and  it  should  be  given  either  crushed  or 
steeped.  Barley  is  more  suitable  for  dairy  or 
fattening  cattle,  to  which  it  is  given,  as  are  other 
cereals,  in  a  ground  state  either  moistened  or  not. 


186   SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

The  principal  use  though  is  in  the  feeding  of  pigs ; 
the  pork  and  bacon  from  barley-fed  swine  are  of 
unexcelled  quality.  Where  the  pigs  are  under 
three  months  old,  oats  are,  however,  preferable. 
There  does  not  appear  to  be  any  marked  differences 
between  the  various  awned  barleys  and  the  amount 
of  chaff,  which  is  between  7-17%,  average  11%, 
determines  in  the  first  place  the  feeding  value. 

Rye  and  wheat,  on  account  of  the  price,  are  only 
used  to  a  slight  extent  for  feeding  animals.  Some- 
times the  small  misshapen,  or  sprouted,  grains  are 
given.  Rye  is  considered  to  serve  rather  for  the 
production  of  energy  than  for  fattening,  but  is 
liable  to  upset  the  digestive  organs.  In  a  fresh 
condition  it  is  the  most  dangerous  of  all  the  cereals. 
It  may  be  given  whole,  after  being  cooked,  to 
horses,  but  not  to  the  extent  of  more  than  half  their 
corn  ration.  Draught  oxen  get  4-6  lbs.  and  sheep, 
at  most,  J  lb.  per  day.  Fattening  pigs  should  have 
the  rye  ground  and  then  given  either  dry  or  scalded, 
as  a  supplementary  food  with  potatoes,  mangels, 
etc.  Fresh  wheat  is  also  dangerous,  and  on  that 
account  is  best  used  for  fattening  cattle  and  pigs, 
to  which  it  is  given  either  ground  or  crushed. 

Maize  is  a  very  good  food  and  seldom  causes 
disturbances  of  health.  Horses  may  have  half 
their  corn  ration  in  split,  or  coarsely  ground,  maize, 
without  diminishing  their  efficiency,  or  causing  any 
other  drawbacks.     Maize  is  also  admirably  suited 


DESCRIPTION    OF   FEEDING-STUFFS    187 

for  draught  oxen,  fattening  bullocks  and  pigs,  and 
can  also  be  given  in  considerable  quantities  to  dairy 
stock,  if  the  making  of  butter  is  not  the  main  object ; 
otherwise  only  smaller  amounts  must  be  given,  or 
the  butter  will  be  too  soft.  Pigs  which  are  being 
fattened  may  have  half  the  ration  composed  of 
maize,  particularly  in  the  first  half  of  the  fattening 
period.  Where  large  quantities  are  given,  the 
bacon  tends  to  become  oily  and  the  flesh  soft, 
points  which  will  be  considered  at  a  later  stage. 
For  foals  maize  can  only  be  considered  a  supple- 
mentary food,  and  as  it  is  very  hard  it  ought  to  be 
coarsely  ground  or  soaked  in  water  before  being  fed. 

Millet  is  rather  costlier,  its  nutritive  value  about 
that  of  oats,  and  on  account  of  the  small  size  of  the 
grains  must  only  be  given  in  a  ground  form. 

Buckwheat  (p.  166)  is  slightly  less  nutritious  than 
oats,  and  is  most  suitable  for  fattening  cattle  and 
pigs,  or  for  draught  oxen  ;  it  is  less  useful  for  horses, 
and  not  at  all  good  for  young  stock.  Owing  to  the 
hardness  of  the  grain  it  must  be  ground  or  soaked. 

(b)   Leguminous  seeds. 

These  take  the  first  place  amongst  the  grains, 
because  of  the  amount  of  protein  they  contain. 
Generally  the  percentage  of  fat  is  not  more  than  in 
cereal  grains,  but  some — soja  beans- and  lupines — 
have  a  considerable  quantity.    Some  of  the  seeds  of 


188   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

leguminous  plants,  such  as  the  gorse  and  the  Java 
bean(Phaseolus  lunatus),  are  poisonous,  and  the  latter 
has  been  the  subject  of  numerous  investigations.  It 
has  been  found  that  when  the  crushed  seeds  are 
stirred  in  water,  or  come  in  contact  with  the  digestive 
juices,  the  very  poisonous  prussic  acid  is  formed, 
under  the  action  of  an  enzyme.  This  acid  can  be 
got  in  small  quantities  from  some  of  the  vetches ; 
the  ordinary  fodder  vetch  also  contains  a  little.  The 
climate  and  weather  seem  to  have  a  great  influence 
upon  the  formation  of  those  substances  which  yield 
prussic  acid. 

All  the  leguminous  seeds,  when  insufficiently 
ground  or  improperly  prepared,  tend  to  cause  dis- 
tension and  constipation.  When  given  in  large 
quantities  they  cause  thickening  of  the  blood,  and 
in  this  respect  vetches  are  the  worst,  then  come 
peas,  whilst  field  beans  least  of  all.  On  this  account 
caution  should  be  exercised  in  the  use  of  leguminous 
seeds,  particularly  with  horses,  and  they  should  be 
reserved  principally  for  hard-working  animals  of 
coarse  breeds.  For  them  ^-J,  at  most  \>  of  the  corn 
may  be  given  in  this  form,  but  much  depends  upon 
the  amount  of  work  done.  Draught  oxen  and 
fattening  stock  of  all  species,  particularly  pigs, 
are  well  suited  for  a  diet  of  leguminous  seeds, 
the  meat  from  the  latter  animals  being  then  excel- 
lent. Vetches  are  said  to  react  unfavourably 
upon  the  taste  and  quality  of  the  milk,  but  recent 


DESCRIPTION    OF    FEEDING-STUFFS     189 

investigations  have  not  upheld  this  view.  In  the 
rearing  of  rapidly  growing  foals,  weak  calves, 
lambs,  and  young  pigs  good  results  are  often  seen 
when  peas  or  beans  are  added  to  the  food. 

The  leguminous  seeds  are  given,  either  ground, 
crushed,  or  soaked  ;  the  seeds  of  serradella,  which 
are  used  in  the  same  way,  are  reported  to  be  a  very 
satisfactory  food. 

Lupine  seeds,  of  whatever  variety,  contain  sub- 
stances with  a  very  bitter  taste,  and  these  diminish 
the  appetite  of  animals  and  also  enter  into  the  milk 
and  butter.  Sheep  eat  the  seeds  in  the  natural  state 
the  most  readily  of  any  animals.  After  the  re- 
moval of  the  bitter  principle  (p.  143),  which  should 
always  be  done,  they  yield  a  food  which  is  suitable 
for  all  kinds  of  animals.  Horses  may  be  given  up 
to  10  lbs.,  fattening  oxen  up  to  18  lbs.,  cows  up  to 
8  lbs.  of  the  wet,  non-bitter  seeds,  which  are  best 
fed  in  crushed  form,  mixed  with  chopped  hay  or 
straw. 

(c)   Oily  seeds. 

These  are  seldom  used  as  food  on  account  of 
their  high  price.  An  exception  is  made  in  the  case 
of  linseed,  which,  when  crushed  and  stirred  with 
hot  water,  gives  a  mucilaginous  mass  with  a  par- 
ticularly salutary  and  soothing  effect. 

Linseed,  or  flaxseed,  is  used  principally  for  feeding 
calves,  or  for  its  sedative  action  when  the  digestive 


igo   SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

organs  are  inflamed.  It  can  also  be  used  for  feeding 
sickly  animals,  but  is  often  successfully  replaced 
by  the  cheaper  linseed  cake.  Of  the  other  oily 
seeds  use  is  sometimes  made  of  those  of  rape, 
colza,  hemp,  sunflower,  etc.,  and  the  properties  of 
them  and  of  the  cake  prepared  from  them  will  be 
discussed  later.  All  oily  seeds  should  be  crushed 
before  being  fed. 

Beech  mast,  which  is  also  fairly  rich  in  oil,  con- 
tains a  poison  that  is  injurious  to  some  animals 
(horses),  and  should,  therefore,  only  be  given  in 
moderate  quantities  to  grown  pigs  and  fattening 
cattle. 

Acorns  and  horse  chestnuts  are  most  valuable 
for  the  fattening  of  pigs  and  oxen,  but  owing  to 
their  astringent  taste  they  are  not  always  readily 
eaten.  When  given  fresh  they  should  be  crushed, 
when  dry  they  may  be  ground. 

(5)    By-products  from  flour  mills. 

In  the  manufacture  of  human  food  from  the  seeds 
of  the  cereal  and  leguminous  plants,  a  large  number 
of  by-products  are  obtained,  both  in  the  preliminary 
preparation  and  in  the  process  of  grinding.  In  the 
refuse  from  the  cleaning  machines  there  are,  in 
addition  to  casual  impurities,  non-fertile  and  broken 
grains,  small  stones,  earth,  sand,  mouse  droppings, 
as  well  as  various  weed  seeds,  rust  spores,  particles 


DESCRIPTION    OF    FEEDING-STUFFS    191 

of  straw  and  wood,  in  fact  rubbish  of  all  sorts,  the 
greater  part  of  which  is  quite  unfit  for  food.  Al- 
though the  broken  and  worthless  grains  of  the  sort 
which  is  being  cleaned  and  many  of  the  weed  seeds 
can  be  quite  well  used  as  fodder,  there  are  other 
seeds  which  cannot.  Some  of  these,  such  as  ergot, 
corn  cockle,  charlock,  darnel,  yellow  rattle,  cow 
wheat  and  rust  spores  often  cause  serious  injury  by 
poisoning,  and  in  some  cases  death  has  been  known 
to  result.  Such  weed  seeds  are  further  to  be  avoided 
because  they  pass  into  the  dung,  and  are  brought 
again  to  the  field,  where  they  later  cause  more  weeds 
to  grow,  or  else  breed  fungi  to  attack  the  plants 
again. 

After  the  corn  has  been  cleaned,  it  is  heated, 
the  husks  and  seed  coats  removed  and  the  grain 
ground.  Only  the  bran  and  feeding  meals  should 
come  into  use  as  feeding-stuffs,  but  some  millers 
seem  to  consider  that  they  have  the  right  to  add 
the  ground  rubbish  obtained  in  the  preliminary 
cleaning,  and  in  extreme  cases  even  buy  rubbish 
for  the  purpose  of  adulteration.  A  list  of  the 
materials  which  have  been  ground  up  with  bran 
or  feeding  meals  with  the  object  of  deceiving  the 
buyer  would  be  almost  interminable,  and  it  is  only 
necessary  to  mention  such  substances  as  sand, 
clay,  lime-dust,  chalk,  gypsum,  marble,  mill  sweep- 
ings, stone-nut,  olive  and  date  kernels,  dried 
potato    pulp,    maize    sterns,    millet    seed    husks, 


192   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

earth-nut  shells,  chaff  from  rice  and  oats.  All  the 
above-mentioned  have  at  times  been  used,  and 
when  carefully  ground  and  mixed  with  the  bran, 
or  meal,  deceive  the  eye  of  the  customer,  and  give 
a  big  profit  to  the  seller.  Whoever  wishes  to 
escape  such  fraud  and  not  injure  his  cattle  and 
fields  should  always  demand  pure,  unadulterated 
bran,  or  feeding  meal,  and  not  use  anything  that 
has  not  been  tested  for  purity  and  absence  of 
adulterants. 

It  may  be  noted  here  that  the  less  perfectly  the 
corn  is  ground  the  richer  the  bran  is  in  flour,  and 
so  of  higher  food  value.  The  brans  from  wheat 
and  rye  are  known  to  the  trade  under  various 
names,  according  to  the  fineness  and  the  way  in 
which  the  process  of  milling  is  carried  on. 

The  feeding  meals,  which  are  also  sold  under 
various  names,  are  the  last  portions  of  flour  ob- 
tained during  milling.  Usually  from  cleaned  rye 
20-25%  bran  and  5-10%  feeding  meal  are  got, 
whilst  from  cleaned  wheat  the  total  amount  of  bran 
is  20%  and  5%  of  feeding  meal. 

The  by-products,  or  refuse,  from  the  grinding 
of  barley  or  oats  are  more  numerous  than  those 
from  wheat  or  rye,  owing  to  the  husks,  which  cause 
the  refuse  to  differ  very  considerably,  according 
to  the  method  of  husking  and  grinding.  Barley, 
which  is  principally  made  into  pearl  barley,  groats, 
etc.,  yields,  as  by-products,  a  bran  which  contains 


DESCRIPTION    OF    FEEDING-STUFFS     193 

only  a  little  flour,  and  also  barley  meal,  which 
contains  varying  amounts  of  husks.  The  refuse 
from  barley  is  one  of  the  most  adulterated  food- 
stuffs; more  than  50%  of  all  consignments  contain 
foreign  substances,  indeed  it  has  happened  that 
barley  meal  has  been  made  up  of  70%  ground  oat 
husks,  and  30%  of  powdered  chalk,  and  not  a  trace 
of  barley. 

In  the  preparation  of  groats  and  other  foods 
from  oats,  the  husks  are  separated  from  the  grain 
and  then  sold  as  oat  bran,  which  of  course  they 
are  not.  The  further  treatment  of  the  oat  grain 
gives  oat  feeding  meal,  which  consists  of  the  ends 
of  the  grain,  particles  of  flour,  and  the  plant  hairs. 
Sometimes,  as  is  preferable,  the  hairs  are  separated 
and  they,  along  with  the  husks  and  some  meal,  are 
sold  as  "  oat  cleanings,"  or  "  oat-dust  feed."  Owing 
to  the  varying  quantities  of  husks  the  valuation  of 
the  refuse  from  barley  and  oats  is  very  difficult 
without  an  exact  analysis  being  made.  Amongst 
the  refuse  materials  from  other  grains  may  be  noted 
millet  feeding  meal,  or  "  millet  polish,"  which  is 
that  portion  of  the  grain  left  after  polishing  the 
skinned  grain.  This  material  is  often  sold  falsely 
under  the  name  of  ground  millet,  and  it  may  or  may 
not  contain  the  husks. 

Rice  meal,  or  rice  polish,  obtained  from  the  pre- 
paration of  cooking  rice,  ought  not  to  contain  large 
quantities  of  ground  husks,  although  they  are  often 


194   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

mixed  with  the  meal.  The  so-called  rice  bran, 
like  oat  bran,  is  not  rightly  named,  for  it  consists 
chiefly  of  ground  husks  and  some  damaged  rice. 
Maize  also  gives  a  bran  and  a  feeding  meal;  the 
former  is  sold  under  the  name  of  Homco  or  hominy 
feeding  meal. 

In  the  preparation  of  leguminous  seeds  for 
human  consumption,  various  by-products  are  ob- 
tained, according  to  whether  the  seed  coats  are 
retained  or  not.  As  a  rule  these  products  are  very 
digestible,  and  they  are  sold  under  various  names. 

Bran  and  feeding  meals  belong  to  that  class  of 
substances  which,  when  fed  in  quantity  for  a  length 
of  time,  have  a  weakening  effect  on  the  digestive 
organs.  They  are  more  suitable  for  fattening  pur- 
poses than  as  food  for  working  animals.  On  account 
of  the  loosening  effect  of  wheat  bran,  it  is  used  for 
milch  cows,  but  it  tends,  as  do  rice  meal  and 
millet  meal,  to  cause  the  butter  to  be  soft.  Rye 
bran  causes  the  butter  to  have  a  coarse,  dry  flavour, 
whilst  the  leguminous  seeds  and  their  by-products 
tend  to  make  the  butter  hard.  For  horses  bran 
and  feeding  meal  are  only  suitable  as  a  supplemen- 
tary food.  In  the  fattening  of  swine,  feeding  meals 
are  largely  used,  but  in  some  cases  the  bran  from 
rye,  buckwheat,  peas,  and  in  a  less  measure  wheat, 
is  also  fed. 

Rice  meal,  otherwise  very  suitable  for  feeding 
pigs,  tends  to  give  a  soft  bacon,  as  do  also  the  waste 


DESCRIPTION    OF    FEEDING-STUFFS     195 

products  from  millet.  For  young  stock  feeding 
meals  are  particularly  suitable,  and  are  given  in 
the  form  of  warm  mashes,  gruel,  etc. 

(6)  Residues  from  oil  mills. 

The  materials  used  in  the  manufacture  of  oils 
are,  as  a  rule,  first  freed  from  foreign  substances 
by  means  of  sieves  or  winnowing  machines.  If  the 
seeds  are  large  they  are  then  husked  or  shelled  and 
broken  up  in  a  crushing  or  grinding  machine.  The 
material  so  prepared  is  subjected  to  great  pressure 
between  cloths,  whereby  the  greater  part  of  the  oil 
flows  away.  Another  method  of  obtaining  the  oil 
from  the  seeds  is  by  extraction  with  carbon  bi- 
sulphide, petroleum  ether,  or  benzine,  in  a  suitable 
apparatus.  The  residual  material,  whether  pressed 
or  extracted,  is  ground  up  again  and  the  pressure 
or  extraction  repeated,  sometimes  also  for  a  third 
time.  When  the  oil  is  extracted  by  pressure,  the 
residues  are  considerably  richer  in  oil  than  in  the 
extraction  process,  where  often  only  2-3%  is  left. 
The  best  oil  cakes  are  prepared  by  the  old  or  pressure 
method,  and  these  when  ground  are  sold  as  oil 
cake  meals.  The  material  left  after  extraction — 
"  new  process  " — is  sometimes  made  into  cake,  but 
more  generally  sold  as  meal.  Linseed-cake  meal 
is  therefore  different  to  linseed  meal,  and  generally 
contains  more  oil. 

The  residues  from  the  oil  mills,  like  all  feeding- 


ig6   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

stuffs  in  the  form  of  cakes  or  meals,  are  liable  to  be 
adulterated,  and  not  only  is  the  rubbish  left  after 
cleaning  added,  but  use  is  also  made  of  those 
adulterants  mentioned  under  milling  refuse.  Valu- 
able oil  cakes  and  meals  are  not  infrequently  mixed 
with  the  cheaper  poppy  and  rape  cakes,  and  even 
poisonous  substances,  such  as  castor  bean  meal  and 
charlock  seeds,  are  sometimes  added.  Cakes  that 
have  become  mouldy  or  otherwise  damaged  are 
occasionally  reground,  heated,  and  pressed  again 
into  cakes. 

Many  residues  from  oil  mills,  particularly  those 
from  palm-  and  cocoa-nuts,  easily  become  rancid  and 
in  this  condition  cause  inflammation  of  the  digestive 
organs  or  damage  the  quality  of  the  milk  and  butter. 
Mouldy  and  rotten  oil  cakes  are  a  most  dangerous 
food,  because,  being  rich  in  protein,  they  undergo 
decomposition,  with  the  formation  of  very  poison- 
ous substances  similar  to  those  found  in  putrefying 
flesh.  Oil  cakes  are  broken  into  small  pieces  before 
being  fed,  and  they,  like  oil  meals,  are  given  dry, 
mixed  with  other  food-stuffs,  to  horses,  cattle, 
sheep,  or  else  slightly  moistened  and  given  a  short 
time  before  the  usual  feeding  time.  Undamaged 
oil  cakes  and  meals  do  not  need  to  be  cooked  or 
scalded  for  feeding  pigs. 

Cotton-seed  meal  is  found  in  many  different 
qualities  in  commerce,  the  chief  differences  being 
between  that  made  from  seeds,  the  hulls  of  which 


DESCRIPTION    OF    FEEDING-STUFFS     197 

have  been  removed  (decorticated)  and  that  where 
the  hulls  and  seeds  are  all  ground  together  (un- 
decorticated) .  The  seed  from  which  the  decorticated 
cotton  cake  or  meal  is  made  comes  principally 
from  the  United  States  and  is  often  freed  from 
impurities,  such  as  stones,  pieces  of  iron,  cotton 
fibre,  etc.,  in  the  ports  where  it  is  imported  and 
then  is  sold  as  a  purified  product.  The  meal  made 
from  unhulled  seeds  comes  from  Egypt  and  India, 
and  possesses  a  smaller  nutritive  value  on  account  of 
the  larger  amount  of  hulls  (about  50%). 

Good  fresh  cotton-seed  meal  ought  to  have  a 
bright  yellow  colour,  a  nutty  flavour  and  a  pleasant 
smell.  Milch  cattle  ought  not  to  get  more  than 
2  lbs.  per  head  per  day,  horses  the  same  quantity, 
draught  oxen  up  to  4  lbs.,  fattening  cattle  5  lbs., 
whilst  fattening  sheep  may  be  given  J— |  lb.  Caution 
should  be  exercised  in  using  this  feeding-stuff,  for 
it  has  been  known  to  affect  the  animals  injuriously 
in  some  cases.  As  a  rule  cotton-seed  meal  causes 
severe  and  sometimes  fatal  sickness  amongst  pigs, 
so  they  and  also  young  and  pregnant  animals 
ought  not  to  get  any.  It  is  not  the  hulls  and 
cotton  fibre  that  cause  the  injury,  as  was  previously 
thought,  for  in  the  countries  where  cotton  is  grown, 
the  hulls  are  fed  in  large  quantities  without  any  ill 
results. 

Earth-nut  cake  and  earth-nut  meal  are  also  sold 
in  various  forms.     The  best  product  is  made  from 


SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF    ANIMALS 

hich  hav  ■ sh .  and  on 

account  of  the  high  quality  of  the  oil,  the  nuts  .\re 
carefully  shelled  and  the  brown  skin  removed, 
rhen  comes  the  M  German  "  meal  made  from  well- 
cleaned  and  skinned  nuts,  and  finally  the  "  Mar- 
seilles "  variety,  which  is  a  less  carefully  prepared 
product,  and  usually  contains  fc-3%  of  sand. 

Good  earth-nut  cake  and  meal  should  have  a 
ft,  bean-like  taste  and  a  sweet  smell ;  the  colour 
van :  s  betwee  n  gi  e  yish-wh  ire  and  reddish-brown . 
In  cer.er;.!  this  is  a  palatable  and  satisfacl  ry  food, 
but  lately   i  :   s  s    of   disturbance   of   the 

digestive  organs,  violent  colic,  and  even  death  by 

is : ning  have  been  not:  ced,  f  v.  c :  inferior  material 
was  DertainJy  not  the  cause.  In  some  cases,  but 
not  by  any  means  in  all,  the  cans  was  proved  to  be 
castor-oil  meal  (p.  204). 

Milch  and  fattening  cattle  may  be  given  up  to 
4  lbs.  per  head  per  day,  horses  up  to  3  lbs.,  fattening 
to  and  pigs  from  i-i|-  lbs.  and  young  stock 
smaller  quantities  in  proportion. 

Sesame   cake    is    made    from    various    coloured, 

unhulled  seeds    ::  several  varieties  of  the  sesame 

plant.     The    sakes    are  an  excellent  feed,   and  in 

digestibility    and    palatableness    they    closely    re- 

.ble  linseed  cake  ;    like  them  they  have  also  a 

lative  action  on  the  digestive  :r£;ans.     Although 

tend  to  cause  softness  of  the  butter  they  are 

a  highly  prized  food  for  dairy  cattle,  and  they  have 


DESCRIPTION    OF    FEEDING-STUFFS     199 

also    be  y    successful    for    fattening    stock, 

draught  oxen,  and  horses.  Sesame  cake  is  given  in 
quantities  similar  to  earth-nut  meal,  and  owing  to 
the  fact  that  it  soon  becomes  mouldy  and  rancid,  it 
should  be  carefully  stored. 

Cocoa-nut  cake  and  meal  are  both  made  from  the 
fleshy  f  :  r  turn  of  the  cocoa-nut  after  the  oil  has  been 
cted  nd  have  a  colour  that  varies  between 
bright  red  and  brown.  They  have  a  nut-like  smell  and 
taste,  and  are  readily  eaten  by  all  classes  of  animals. 
It  is  preferred  to  feed  them  to  dairy  stock,  for  they 
are  said  to  increase  the  quantity  of  fat  in  the  milk, 
and  about  4  lbs.  per  head  [  r  fey  may  be  given. 
The  butter  and  the  bacon  from  animals  fed  on 
cocoa-nut  cake  or  meal  tend  to  be  harder,  and  in 
this  respect  resemble  those  from  palm-nut  cake, 
as  will  be  mentioned  directly.  In  spite  of  the  very 
favourable  effect  on  other  animals  cocoa-nut  cake, 
or  meal,  is  generally  limited  to  milch  cows  on  account 
of  the  high  price. 

Palm-nut  cake,  made  from  the  husked  fruit  of  a 
species  of  palm  by  pressure,  is  a  greyish-white  sub- 

□  x  ir.terspersed  with  dark  particles  which  are  the 
remains  of  the  husk.  This  cake  has  not  a  veiy 
pronounced  flavour,  and  is  usually  fed  in  the  dry 
state,  for  if  moistened  with  water  stock  do  not  eat 
it  readily.  The  same  applies,  to  palm-nut  meal, 
which  contains  less  fat.  as  it  has  been  subjected  to 
faction.    These  by-products  from  the  palm-nut 


200   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

are  used  in  the  first  place  for  feeding  dairy  cattle, 
and,  like  the  cocoa-nut  cake,  they  are  said  to  im- 
prove the  fat  contents  of  the  milk,  but  to  cause  the 
butter  to  be  hard.  The  corresponding  effect  is  seen 
in  the  bacon  of  pigs  fed  on  this  material. 

Cows  are  given  up  to  5  lbs.  palm-nut  cake  per 
head  per  day,  but  other  animals  only  get  it  when 
the  price  is  low.  Both  the  cake  and  the  meal  easily 
become  rancid  on  keeping. 

Linseed  cake.  The  residues  from  linseed,  in  the 
form  of  cake  or  meal,  have  a  favourable  action  on 
the  digestive  organs.  When  treated  with  hot 
water  they  ought  to  form  a  mildly  acting  mucila- 
ginous food.  Before  the  oil  is  extracted,  the 
crushed  seeds  are  sometimes  heated  with  steam, 
which  causes  the  mucilaginous  part  of  the  seeds  to 
swell,  and  then  dried  again.  This  gives  a  material 
that  does  not  swell  up  again  when  heated  with 
warm  water.  The  linseed  by-products  are  used  in 
the  same  way  as  linseed  itself,  particularly  as 
dietetic  substances  for  animals  reduced  in  flesh,  and 
for  young  stock  at  the  time  of  weaning.  They  are 
further  used  to  counteract  the  irritating  properties 
which  some  foods  have  upon  the  alimentary  canal, 
and  for  this  purpose  they  are  often  given  in  the 
form  of  warm  gruel.  Pigs  fattened  largely  upon 
linseed  preparations  yield  an  oily  bacon  and  soft, 
tasteless  flesh  ;  linseed  cakes  cause  this  more  than 
do  the  extracted  meals. 


DESCRIPTION    OF    FEEDING-STUFFS     201 

Rape  and  colza  cakes  and  the  meals  made  from 
them  have  the  peculiarity  of  yielding  a  pungent, 
volatile  oil — mustard  oil — when  moistened  with 
water.  This  may  cause  many  unpleasant  symp- 
toms and  diseases  of  the  digestive  and  urinary 
organs,  abortion  in  cows,  loss  of  flesh,  are  said  to 
be  the  results  when  much  of  this  food  is  given. 
The  milk  from  cows  fed  on  rape  cake  is  also  said  to 
have  an  unpleasant  taste,  and  to  have  an  effect  on 
the  health  of  infants,  or  calves,  to  which  it  is  given. 
European  rape  and  colza  seeds  and  their  by-pro- 
ducts are  thought  to  be  preferable  to  some  foreign 
varieties,  cakes  made  from  Indian  seed  having 
frequently  been  proved  to  be  injurious  to  the 
health  of  animals.  Although  these  properties  of 
the  different  kinds  of  rape  seed  require  further 
investigation,  it  is  only  right  that  the  origin  of  the 
seeds  in  "  rape  cake  "  should  be  given  in  each  case, 
particularly  as  the  Indian  seed  is  cheaper  than  the 
European. 

On  account  of  the  smell  of  mustard,  which  rape 
cake  gives  when  moistened,  it  should  always  be  fed 
dry,  otherwise  it  may  not  be  eaten.  Milch  cows 
should  not  get  more  than  2  lbs.,  fattening  and 
draught  oxen  up  to  4  lbs.,  and  sheep  less  than  i  lb. 
Rape  cake  is  not  suitable  for  young  stock  on  account 
of  the  obstinate  scouring  which.it  sometimes  causes. 
Pigs  ought  only  to  get  J  lb.  per  day,  otherwise  the 
bacon  is  apt  to  be  oily.     A  material  called  "  rape 


202   SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

cake  meal,"  consisting  of  ground  weed  seeds  (char- 
lock, polygonum,  corn  cockle,  etc.),  is  sometimes 
offered  for  sale. 

Sunflower-seed  cake  and  the  meal  made  from  it 
are  usually  prepared  from  seeds  that  have  been 
imperfectly  skinned  and  cleaned,  and  so  seed 
coats  and  earth  are  common.  Sunflower-seed  cake 
is  very  useful  for  cows,  and  is  said  to  influence  the 
amount  of  fat  in  the  milk  favourably  ;  it  is  also  of 
considerable  value  in  fattening  bullocks  and  sheep, 
and  it  is  said  to  improve  the  "  tallowy  "  flavour  of 
fat  meat.  The  bacon  of  pigs  is  not  affected  by  it, 
at  least  not  favourably. 

Sunflower-seed  cake  possesses  an  extraordinary 
hardness,  and  is  difficult  to  break  into  suitable 
pieces.  It  has  the  advantage  though  of  keeping  for 
a  long  time  without  going  mouldy. 

Poppy-seed  cake.  After  the  feeding  of  animals 
with  this  by-product  they  have  been  observed  to  be 
remarkably  slow  and  sleepy,  and  this  has  been 
attributed  to  a  small  quantity  of  opium.  Good 
ripe  poppy  seeds  do  not  contain  any  of  this  poison, 
or  at  least  only  traces,  but  in  the  unripe  seeds  and 
the  capsules  small  quantities  are  found.  For  this 
reason  it  is  not  advisable  to  feed  this  otherwise 
palatable  cake  to  young  stock,  neither  to  pregnant 
or  suckling  animals.  Horses  also  are  better  with- 
out it,  and  its  use  should  be  restricted  to  fattening 
stock — bullocks  or  sheep.     This  food  is  also  said 


DESCRIPTION    OF    FEEDING-STUFFS    203 

to  diminish  the  amount  of  fat  in  the  milk,  and  also 
to  affect,  adversely,  the  taste,  colour,  and  ease  with 
which  the  cream  is  separated.  In  any  case  2  lbs.  per 
head  per  day  is  quite  enough  for  cows.  Poppy- 
seed  cake  is  not  very  durable. 

Hemp  cake.  The  waste  products  from  the  hemp 
which  come  into  commerce  as  cake  or  meals  are 
often  badly  adulterated  with  leaves,  stems,  sand, 
and  earth.  The  extraction  of  the  oil  has  also  to 
take  place  at  a  high  temperature,  so  the  cakes  are 
often  burnt,  and  on  account  of  the  moisture  which 
they  take  up  tend  to  become  mouldy.  Hemp  cake, 
like  poppy  cake,  is  credited  with  containing  poison- 
ous substances,  so  that  it  is  advisable  to  restrict  the 
use  of  it  to  grown  male  animals.  Good  undamaged 
hemp  cake  is  a  suitable  food  for  working  horses,  which 
may  be  given  3  lbs.  per  day,  fattening  cattle  can  stand 
5  lbs.,  and  fattening  sheep  up  to  1  lb. ;  cows  also 
ought  not  to  get  more  than  1  lb.  per  head  per  day. 

The  following  residues  from  oil  works  occasionally 
come  into  the  market,  but  generally  only  in  small 
quantities. 

Beech-nut  cake,  the  properties  of  which  closely 
resemble  those  of  the  unpressed  beech  mast  (p.  190). 

The  seeds  of  False  flax  (Camelina  sativa)  ace 
sometimes  made  into  cake,  which  has  an  acrid,  un- 
palatable taste,  resembling  onions  and  mustard.  It 
flavours  the  milk,  butter,  and  even  the  flesh  un- 
pleasantly, and  is  said  to  cause  abortion. 


204  SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

Castor-oil  seed  cake,  which  can  only  be  used  after 
being  heated,  for  otherwise  a  poisonous  albuminoid 
material  which  it  contains  can  cause  death  ;  it  is 
always  dangerous. 

Almond  cake,  a  very  prized  and  palatable  food 
for  dairy  stock  and  for  other  animals.  Amongst  the 
rarer  foods  are  the  residues  of  the  caraway,  aniseed, 
coriander,  and  fennel  seeds,  which  are  left  after  the 
oils  have  been  separated  by  distillation.  As  in  the 
manufacture  the  seeds  are  not  pressed,  or  extracted 
with  any  fat  solvent,  the  oil  originally  present  in  the 
seeds  finds  its  way  almost  entirely  into  the  residues, 
which  are  very  good  for  feeding  to  cows  and  fatten- 
ing animals. 

(7)  Residues  from  the  manufacture  of  starch. 

The  waste  products  from  starch  factories  which 
can  be  used  for  food  vary  according  to  the  crude 
material  employed.  The  chief  substances  from 
which  starch  is  got  are  potatoes,  wheat,  rice,  and 
maize. 

When  the  starch  has  been  washed  out  of  the 
macerated  potatoes  there  remains  the  pulp  or 
fibre,  which  is  a  very  watery  material  liable  to 
acid  fermentation  and  putrefaction,  and  can  be 
utilised  either  in  the  moist  or  dry  state.  The 
fresh  pulp  is  a  watery  tasteless  food  which  may  be 
given  to  fattening  bullocks  or  pigs,  also  to  dairy 
stock,   but   is   not   suitable   for   horses    or   sheep. 


DESCRIPTION    OF    FEEDING-STUFFS     205 

Fattening  animals  may  be  given  up  to  65,  cows  up 
to  50,  and  pigs  up  to  20  lbs.,  whilst  less  of  the  dry 
pressed  pulp,  which  often  contains  slaked  lime, 
is  naturally  required.  This  food  is  given  in  a 
boiled  state  to  pigs,  other  animals  get  it  raw,  but 
slightly  warmed.  The  dry  ground  pulp,  which 
contains  lime,  is  given  in  quantities  of  6-8  lbs.  to 
horses  and  fattening  stock,  and  5  lbs.  to  cows  with- 
out any  drawback  ;  young  animals  ought  only  to 
have  it  as  accessory  food.  The  juice  from  the 
potatoes,  which  only  contains  0-2-0-6%  of  dry 
matter,  quickly  goes  bad,  and  is  not  worth 
feeding. 

In  the  old-fashioned  fermentation  process  for 
the  manufacture  of  starch  from  wheat,  the  starch 
was  freed  from  the  husks,  germs,  and  gluten,  and 
afterwards  was  purified  by  means  of  centrifuges 
or  settling.  According  to  the  newer  methods  the 
flour  alone  is  used,  not  the  whole  grain,  and  the 
starch  is  separated  by  means  of  sieves,  leaving  as 
by-product  a  very  pure,  sweet  gluten.  The  waste 
products  mentioned  contain  a  lot  of  water,  and  soon 
undergo  decomposition.  In  the  fresh  state  they 
are  fed  to  oxen,  cows,  and  pigs,  but  the  gluten  is 
the  only  material  to  be  dried  as  a  rule,  and  it  is 
too  dear  for  cattle,  food,  just  as  maize  and  rice 
gluten  are. 

Rice  which  is  to  be  used  for  making  starch  is 
soaked  in  dilute  caustic  soda,  which  dissolves  to  a 


206   SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

large  extent  the  protein  substances.  The  undis- 
solved portion,  after  being  washed  almost  free  from 
starch,  consists  principally  of  husks,  germs,  and 
starch,  and  is  called  rice  slump,  which  can  be  fed 
either  fresh,  pressed,  or  dried,  like  the  wheat  slump. 
The  dissolved  protein  is  precipitated  by  hydro- 
chloric acid,  or  by  a  stream  of  carbon-dioxide  gas, 
and  is  then  sometimes  dried  and  ground  ;  it  is  the 
rice  gluten. 

Various  by-products  from  the  manufacture  of 
starch  from  maize  are  used  as  cattle  foods.  The 
grains  of  maize  are  usually  soaked  in  water  con- 
taining a  little  sulphur  dioxide,  and  then,  by  means 
of  machinery,  the  outer  horny  parts  and  germs 
are  separated  from  the  flour,  and  all  is  then  stirred 
up  with  water.  The  germs  which  collect  on  the 
surface  are  used  for  the  preparation  of  oil,  and 
after  pressing  give  maize-germ  cake.  From  the 
sediment  the  starch  is  separated  by  means  of  sieves, 
and  the  husks,  mixed  with  the  gluten  from  the 
further  purification  of  the  starch,  are  dried  and 
give  gluten  feed,  as  it  is  generally  called.  All 
these  by-products  are  used  in  the  same  way  as 
maize  itself,  only  in  smaller  quantities,  and  they 
have  given  good  results.  The  germ  cake  or  meal 
is  a  very  palatable  food,  and  only  affects  the  bacon 
or  flesh  of  pigs  if  large  quantities  are  given. 


DESCRIPTION    OF    FEEDING-STUFFS    207 


(8)  By-products  from  the  manufacture  of  sugar. 

In  the  preparation  of  sugar  from  beets  two  im- 
portant foods,  beet  slices  and  molasses,  are  ob- 
tained. 

The  beet  slices,  or  diffusion  slices,  as  they  are 
sometimes  called,  are  the  material  which  is  left 
after  the  extraction  of  the  sugar  by  soaking  the 
sliced  beets  in  water.  They  contain  only  a  small 
amount  of  sugar,  and  can  be  fed  either  pressed  or 
impressed  in  the  fresh  state,  or  else  made  into 
sour  fodder  or  dried.  According  to  the  recent 
method  of  Steffen,  the  limited  extraction  of  the 
beets  yields  a  product  called  sugar  slices,  which 
in  the  wet  state  still  contains  9%  of  sugar,  and  is 
generally  dried  before  being  used  as  food.  In  the 
drying  of  both  sorts  of  slices  furnace  gases  are 
chiefly  used,  although  during  the  past  few  years 
steam  has  been  introduced  for  the  purpose.  There 
is  no  difference  in  the  feeding  value  of  the  products 
dried  by  either  method,  but  the  slices  dried  by 
steam  have  a  better  appearance,  and  are  in  smaller 
pieces.  Further,  they  are  never  charred,  and  they 
swell  considerably  in  water. 

Beet  slices,  either  fresh  or  made  into  sour  fodder, 
have  given  very  good  results  with  fattening  bullocks 
and  dairy  stock  ;  the  quantities  fed  are  60-80  lbs. 
per  1000  lbs.  live  weight  for  the  former  class  of 


208   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

stock,  and  for  the  latter  not  more  than  half  these 
quantities.  There  is  a  danger  in  feeding  large 
amounts  of  this  material  to  cows,  unless  concen- 
trated food  rich  in  protein  and  fat  is  given,  that 
a  hard  white  butter  of  bad  flavour  will  result. 
Horses  which  are  either  not  working,  or  only  to  a 
slight  extent,  may  occasionally  be  given  small 
quantities  of  the  slices.  Pregnant  animals  and 
young  stock  ought  only  to  receive  moderate 
quantities  of  the  fresh  slices. 

Serious  cases  of  illness  have  been  noticed  where 
animals  have  been  fed  with  the  beet  slices  that 
have  undergone  decomposition,  but  dried  slices 
very  seldom  cause  any  disturbance.  Fattening 
stock  may  be  given  10-15  lbs.  of  the  latter,  cows 
6-10  lbs.,  draught  oxen  10-14  lbs.,  calves  according 
to  their  age  1-5  lbs.,  pigs  1J-4  lbs.  It  is  advisable 
to  soak  the  beet  slices  either  in  hot  water,  dilute 
molasses,  skim  milk  or  whey,  before  giving  them  to 
pigs. 

The  sugar  slices  (see  above)  may  be  fed  in  the 
following  amounts  to  stock:  cows  6-8  lbs.,  bullocks 
10-12  lbs.,  draught  oxen  8-10  lbs.,  horses  4-6  lbs., 
and  fattening  pigs  3-4  lbs.  It  is  to  be  remembered 
that  the  material  is  poor  in  bone-forming  mineral 
substances. 

Molasses.  This  is  the  residual  product  left  from 
the  manufacture  of  sugar  from  beet  juice.  The 
chief  component  is  cane  sugar  or  saccharose,  which 


DESCRIPTION    OF    FEEDING-STUFFS    209 

forms  63-71%  of  the  dry  matter,  and  in  liquid 
molasses  is  about  48%.  There  is' only  about  0-5% 
of  protein  in  the  nitrogenous  substances  of  mo- 
lasses, the  rest  being  amides,  which,  according  to 
investigations,  have  no  feeding  value.  The  ash  of 
molasses  is  very  rich  in  potash,  almost  entirely  free 
from  phosphoric  acid,  and  contains  only  a  little  lime. 
In  general  the  method  of  manufacture  and 
purification  of  ordinary  molasses  has  very  little 
influence  on  its  composition.  Where  the  molasses 
is  specially  treated  to  obtain  as  much  sugar  as 
possible,  it  is  found  that  the  final  product  has  dry 
matter  to  the  extent  of  72-80%,  of  which  12-17% 
is  the  rather  rare  sugar  raffinose,  which  is  found  to 
the  extent  of  only  2-4%  in  ordinary  molasses. 
The  value  of  molasses  is  almost  entirely  in  pro- 
portion to  the  amount  of  carbohydrates  it  contains. 
Beet  molasses  is  a  thick  dark  brown  liquid,  with 
a  characteristic  smell,  and  contains  a  varying 
quantity  of  water  (15-5-32%).  The  percentage 
of  water  determines  largely  the  keeping  properties 
of  the  molasses,  for  dilute  molasses  somewhat 
readily  becomes  sour,  and  is  then  worthless.  Be- 
fore using  molasses  it  should  be  mixed  with  warm 
water,  and  then  poured  over  the  dry  food,  and  well 
mixed  with  it.  Scouring  sometimes  follows  the 
use  of  molasses,  and  this  is  generally  ascribed  to 
the  salts  which  it  contains,  but  it  is  more  likely 
due  to  the  sugar  being  given  in  a  dissolved  form 
p 


210   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

(p.  145).  By  gradually  introducing  molasses  into 
a  ration  it  is  possible  to  avoid  this,  and  as  molasses 
is  such  a  very  valuable  material  in  preventing 
colic  in  horses,  or  diminishing  the  severity  of  an 
attack,  it  should  never  be  forgotten  by  those  who 
keep  these  animals.  Moderate  quantities  only  of 
molasses  should  be  fed;  per  1000  lbs.  live  weight 
horses  may  get  3  lbs.,  cows  2 J-  lbs.,  draught  oxen 
3-4  lbs.,  fattening  bullocks  and  sheep  4  lbs.,  and 
fattening  pigs  5  lbs.  Animals  in  an  advanced  stage  of 
pregnancy  are  said  to  show  a  tendency  to  abortion 
when  molasses  is  fed. 

The  difficulty  of  handling  such  a  material  as 
molasses  has  led  to  the  commercial  making  of  mix- 
tures with  it  and  some  dry  food.  At  the  commence- 
ment the  manufacture  was  limited  to  beet  pulp,  and 
this  gave  with  the  molasses  an  excellent  and  durable 
food,  but  now  other  materials  have  been  employed. 
The  feeding  value  of  these  mixtures  is  most  easily 
determined  where  there  is  only  one  other  food 
besides  the  molasses,  e.g.  dried  grains,  palm-nut 
meal,  cocoa-nut  meal,  wheat  bran,  etc.  In  such 
mixtures  as  these  the  amount  of  molasses  varies 
from  50-70%.  The  palm-nut  and  cocoa-nut 
meals  which  are  used  in  this  process  have  been 
usually  extracted  with  some  solvent,  and  are  not 
simply  ground  cake  meal,  for  the  latter  do  not  soak 
up  the  molasses  so  well,  on  account  of  the  oil 
which  they  contain.     A  molasses  feed  made  with 


DESCRIPTION    OF    FEEDING-STUFFS    211 

straw  has  given  good  results,  and  can  be  prepared 
by  the  feeder  himself,  whilst  molasses  bread  made 
with  bran,  coarse  flour,  or  feeding  meal  and  mo- 
lasses, and  then  baked,  has  also  been  successful. 
The  cheapest  and  most  desirable  way  of  using 
molasses  still  remains  to  dilute  it  with  hot  water, 
and  mix  it  with  the  food  before  feeding. 

Unfortunately,  the  manufacture  of  molasses 
feeds  did  not  stop  with  those  substances  named, 
but  a  whole  host  of  the  most  varied  waste  products, 
digestible  and  indigestible,  mouldy  or  unsale- 
able, have  been  employed  as  a  basis.  Thus  there 
reappear  in  these  foods  all  those  adulterants 
which  have  been  mentioned  under  brans  and  oil 
cakes,  and  in  addition  such  rubbish  as  leather, 
which,  although  it  raises  the  percentage  of  protein,, 
is  quite  indigestible. 

Peat  is  also  a  worthless  substance  which  no 
animal  will  touch  unless  it  is  sweetened  with  mo- 
lasses, but  when  made  into  peat  molasses  it  is 
eaten  just  as  other  mixtures  of  rubbish  and  mo- 
lasses are.  The  buyer  of  molasses  feeds  should 
reject  those  preparations  which  are  sold  under  a 
proprietary  name,  or  are  known  to  contain  worth- 
less materials,  and  buy  only  those  which  have 
some  good  food  material  as  the  basis.  Indefinite 
names  ought  to  be  a  sufficient^  warning  that  if  the 
true  description  were  given  there  would  probably 
be  little  chance  of  a  sale  being  effected. 


212   SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

Even  when  two  known  materials  are  used  for 
soaking  up  the  molasses  it  is  a  disadvantage,  for 
it  is  then  very  difficult  to  determine  the  proportion 
of  these  two,  and  it  is  almost  certain  that  the  cheaper 
will  predominate.  It  is  only  possible  to  guard  the 
buyer  of  molasses  feeds  from  fraud  when  the 
relation  between  the  molasses  and  the  other  sub- 
stance can  be  determined  by  a  chemical  analysis. 
Molasses  feeds  should  be  bought  with  a  guarantee 
for  the  amount  of  molasses,  water,  protein,  and  fat 
which  they  contain,  as  well  as  information  as  to 
the  dry  material  used.  The  amount  of  water  is 
of  great  importance;  more  than  20%  in  ordinary 
mixtures,  and  25%  in  peat  molasses  is  excessive, 
for  on  storing  such  mixtures  they  are  very  liable 
to  ferment,  whereby  the  greater  part  of  the  sugar 
can  be  destroyed.  It  is  often  claimed  in  advertise- 
ments that  the  mixture  of  molasses  with  some 
other  material  produces  results  when  used  as  a  food 
quite  superior  to  the  two  substances  when  separate, 
but  this  is  not  true,  for  the  components  have  ex- 
actly the  same  effect,  whether  they  are  fed  singly 
or  mixed. 

The  residues  from  sugar  factories,  which  consist 
of  impure  sugar,  have  been  repeatedly  tested  ex- 
perimentally for  feeding  purposes.  This  feeding 
sugar  is  generally  mixed  with  coal  dust,  bran, 
oil-cake  meal,  or  some  other  material  (to  prevent 
it  being  stolen  for  human  consumption),  and  may 


DESCRIPTION    OF    FEEDING-STUFFS    213 

be  given  to  horses,  if  gradually  introduced  into  the 
ration,  in  quantities  of  5-6  lbs.  per  1000  lbs.  live 
weight  per  day,  without  impairing  the  efficiency 
of  the  animal.  Feeding  sugar  is  not  suitable  for 
ruminants,  owing  to  its  less  powerful  effect  as  a 
food,  and  it  is  still  doubtful,  in  spite  of  many  in- 
vestigations, whether  it  is  useful  for  pigs.  Whether 
the  preparation  of  sugar  for  feeding  purposes  is 
profitable,  or  whether  it  would  not  be  better  to 
leave  the  sugar  in  the  beets  and  use  these,  has  not 
yet  been  satisfactorily  decided. 


(9)  Residues  from  fermentation  processes. 

Amongst  the  residues  from  the  breweries  and 
distilleries  are  found  several  substances,  such  as 
malt  culms,  brewers'  grains,  and  various  distillers' 
and  brewers'  wastes,  which  are  sometimes  called 
slumps.  Malt  culms  or  coombs  ought  to  have 
a  bright  colour,  for  if  they  have  been  dried 
too  much  they  are  less  digestible.  Damp,  mouldy 
material  is  often  dried  a  second  time,  and  then 
becomes  dusty,  and  has  a  darker  colour,  and  this 
is  sometimes  bleached  with  sulphur  dioxide,  which 
serves  also  to  get  rid  of  the  musty  smell. 

Malt  coombs  are  particularly  rich  in  non-protein 
nitrogenous  substances  (6-8%),  and  also  contain 
a  fair  amount  of  sugar  (12-13%).  They  are  par- 
ticularly prized  as  food  for  milking  cows,  which 


214   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

may  be  given  up  to  6  lbs.  per  head  per  day,  either 
moistened  or  scalded. 

In  the  same  manner  and  quantities  they  are 
given  to  draught  oxen  and  fattening  bullocks, 
whilst  working  horses  may  be  given  6  lbs.,  and  sheep 
up  to  \  lb.,  of  the  dried  coombs.  Fattening  pigs 
can  take  up  to  2  lbs.,  foals  according  to  their  age 
\-2  lbs.  dry,  and  calves  up  to  4  lbs.  scalded.  Animals 
that  are  pregnant  or  suckling  should  only  have 
small  amounts,  for  the  malt  coombs  are  said  to  cause 
abortion  and,  in  the  case  of  the  calves,  scouring ; 
young  pigs  have  also  been  upset  by  this  food.  It 
is  possible  that  a  slightly  poisonous  substance, 
"  Hordenin,"  which  has  been  recently  discovered 
in  the  coombs,  may  cause  these  disturbances  of 
health. 

Brewers  grains  are  the  waste  products  left 
after  the  mashing  of  barley  or  some  similar  starchy 
material,  such  as  maize,  rice,  potatoes,  etc.  They 
can  be  fed  either  fresh  or  dried,  and  amongst  the 
latter  the  lighter,  less  strongly  heated,  and  there- 
fore more  digestible  samples  are  to  be  preferred. 
Good  dried  brewers'  grains  ought  to  be  free  from 
particles  of  carbon,  and  they  should  have  a  pleasant 
smell,  resembling  fresh  bread.  When  they  are 
stirred  with  warm  water  they  ought  not  to  have 
a  sour  or  musty  smell.  When  fresh,  even  when 
still  warm,  brewers'  grains  are  a  very  palatable 
and  useful  food,  but  they  easily  become  sour  and 


DESCRIPTION    OF   FEEDING-STUFFS    215 

mouldy,  and  are  then  injurious.  Milking  cows 
may  be  given  20-40  lbs.  per  head  per  day.  Fattening 
bullocks  and  pigs  can  take  up  to  25  lbs.  per  1000  lbs. 
live  weight ;  but  for  horses  and  sheep  they  are 
only  to  be  regarded  as  a  supplementary  food, 
because  of  the  large  amount  of  water  they  hold. 

When  the  grains  are  dried  horses  may  be  given 
half  of  their  corn  ration  in  this  form,  the  quantity 
to  be  fed  to  cows  and  fattening  bullocks  is  not  more 
than  6  lbs.,  fattening  sheep  up  to  1  lb.  per  day; 
pigs  are  not  able  to  satisfactorily  digest  dried 
grains.  The  grains  from  distilleries  are  very 
similar  in  method  of  preparation  and  use. 

Distillery  waste,  sometimes  called  distillery  slump, 
is  quite  different  from  brewery  or  distillery  grains. 
When  the  mashed  grain  has  fermented,  and  the 
liquid  not  been  drawn  off,  there  is  left,  after  the 
distillation  of  the  alcohol,  a  material  which  con- 
tains everything  but  the  fermented  carbohydrate. 
During  the  fermentation  the  yeast,  which  is  rich  in 
nitrogenous  matter,  increases,  and  at  the  same  time 
certain  amides  are  formed  into  protein,  so  that 
distillery  waste  contains  more  of  this  than  did 
the  crude  material.  In  unfermented  mash  made 
from  potatoes  there  was  found  in  one  case  only  55% 
crude  protein,  whilst  the  material  left  after  dis- 
tillation of  the  alcohol  contained  72%. 

As  the  protein  of  the  yeast  is  digestible  the  slump 
becomes  more  valuable  by  its  presence,  but  as  the 


216   SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

raw  material  used  in  the  distilleries  differs  so  much 
it  is  only  to  be  expected  that  the  nutritive  value 
of  the  by-products  will  also  vary  considerably. 
The  best  distillery  waste  is  got  where  cereal  grains 
are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  alcohol,  then 
comes  that  from  potatoes,  and  lastly  that  from 
molasses,  which,  owing  to  the  large  amount  of 
salts  which  it  contains,  is  hardly  fit  for  food.  Of 
whatever  origin  the  distillery  waste  may  be,  it  is 
very  advisable  to  feed  it  in  a  fresh  warm  condition, 
and  to  keep  the  vessels  and  troughs  in  which  it  is 
put  in  a  clean  state ;  otherwise  the  material  rapidly 
becomes  sour,  and  causes  injury  to  the  health  of 
the  animal.  Fattening  cattle  may  be  given  up  to 
60  litres  (1  litre = if  pints),  cows  40  litres,  fattening 
sheep  and  pigs  2-3  litres  per  head  per  day.  Horses 
which  are  doing  moderate  work  may  have  10-15 
litres.  Hard-working  horses,  breeding  and  suckling 
animals,  as  well  as  young  stock,  had  better  not  re- 
ceive any  of  this  material.  Potato  slump  acts 
like  raw  potatoes,  and  may  cause  colic,  diarrhoea, 
abortion,  as  well  as  giving  rise  sometimes  to  a 
peculiar  cough  and  sores  on  the  legs.  When  grain 
slumps  are  used  for  feeding  the  above-mentioned 
diseases  are  observed  to  a  much  less  extent,  and, 
therefore,  these  by-products  can  be  given  in  larger 
quantities  than  those  from  the  manufacture  of 
potato  spirit. 

Amongst  the  dried  slumps  the  following  may  be 


DESCRIPTION    OF    FEEDING-STUFFS    217 

mentioned  :  (1)  Hungarian  or  French  maize  slump, 
of  a  dark  colour,  and  containing  a  lot  of  husk  ; 
it  is  generally  mixed  with  chalk  before  being  dried. 
(2)  American  maize  slump,  of  a  lighter  colour,  and 
got  from  more  or  less  perfectly  husked  grain  ;  it 
often  contains  oat  husks,  and,  having  been  dried 
in  partially  exhausted  chambers,  does  not  possess 
the  pleasant  aromatic  smell  of  the  dark  Hungarian 
slumps.  (3)  Grain  slump  of  American  origin,  made 
from  maize  and  rye.  And  (4)  Rye  slump  made 
from  rye,  sometimes  with  and  sometimes  without 
barley  malt. 

What  has  been  said  as  regards  the  buying  and 
use  of  dried  grains,  as  well  as  the  quantities  to  be 
used,  applies  equally  well  to  dried  slumps,  which 
resemble  them  closely. 

(10)  Feeding-stuffs  of  animal  origin. 

In  this  class  of  substances  come  cow's  milk  and 
the  by-products  from  the  manufacture  of  cream, 
butter,  and  cheese,  as  well  as  some  materials  made 
from  the  flesh,  blood,  bones,  and  even  the  whole 
bodies  of  animals. 

Milk,  the  chief  food  material  of  young  animals 
during  the  first  periods  of  life,  is  composed  of  water, 
protein  substances  (casein  and  .albumin),  fat,  milk 
sugar,  and  mineral  matter.  Along  with  these 
are    also    found    small    and    usually    unimportant 


218   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

quantities  of  urea,  lecithine,  cholesterine,  citric 
acid,  etc. 

When  milk  is  placed  under  the  microscope  it  is 
seen  to  be  composed  of  a  clear  liquid,  in  which  a 
great  number  of  tiny  drops  of  fat  are  present. 
The  fluid  form  of  the  nutrients  and  the  finely 
divided  condition  (emulsion)  of  the  fat  ensure  the 
complete  accessibility  of  the  digestive  juices  to 
all  the  constituents  of  the  milk.  It  is  true  that  the 
proteins  of  the  milk  are  acted  upon  shortly  after 
ingestion  by  an  enzyme  in  the  gastric  juice,  and 
curdled,  but  the  curd  is  in  such  a  form  that  it  offers 
no  resistance  to  the  process  of  digestion  (p.  146). 
Investigations  with  sucking  calves  have  also  shown 
that  only  2-3%  of  the  ingested  dry  matter  of  the 
milk  passes  into  the  faeces  (see  Part  III,  Chapter  VI). 

When  a  comparison  is  made  of  the  composition 
of  the  milk  of  various  animals,  considerable  differ- 
ences are  seen  to  exist  between  the  quantities  of  the 
organic  and  also  the  mineral  constituents.  In 
cow's  milk,  for  instance,  the  average  composition 
is  2 -9%  casein,  0-5%  albumin,  3-4%  fat,  4-6% 
milk  sugar,  07%  ash,  which  contains  26%  phos- 
phoric acid.  The  milk  of  the  mare  has  1-3%  casein, 
07%  albumin,  i-i%  fat,  5'9%milk  sugar,  0-4%  ash, 
which  contains  32%  phosphoric  acid.  From  such 
differences  it  is  easy  to  see  that  cow's  milk  when  used 
as  food  for  the  young  of  other  species  cannot  be 
as  beneficial  as  the  milk  of  the  animal's  own  mother. 


DESCRIPTION  OF    FEEDING-STUFFS     219 

Colostrum  (first  milk,  beastings)  is  a  fluid  which 
is  yielded  by  the  cow  at  the  birth  of  a  calf,  and  for 
several  days  afterwards.  It  is  a  yellow,  or  yellowish 
brown,  liquid  of  a  viscid  nature,  with  a  salty  taste 
and  a  peculiar  smell.  Compared  with  ordinary  milk, 
colostrum  is  richer  in  dry  matter,  particularly 
in  protein  substances,  which  coagulate  on  heat- 
ing ;  it  contains  also  more  mineral  substances, 
but  is  poorer  in  milk  sugar.  The  action  of  the 
colostrum  is  slightly  purgative,  and  this  property 
is  very  valuable  in  the  case  of  young  animals, 
from  which  it  should  not  be  withheld.  Some  5-10 
days  after  the  birth  of  the  calf  the  milk  of  the  mother 
gradually  returns  to  its  normal  condition. 

It  has  been  already  noticed  in  describing  the 
feeding-stuffs  of  vegetable  origin  that  sometimes 
after  using  some  of  them  the  milk  acquires  proper- 
ties which,  although  they  may  be  quite  non-in- 
jurious, nevertheless  make  it  unsuitable  for  rearing 
young  animals.  Many  poisons  and  medicinal  sub- 
stances, such  as  copper,  lead,  iodine,  salicylic  acid, 
etc.,  it  has  been  repeatedly  proved  can  in  some 
measure  pass  into  the  milk.  Such  milk,  as  well 
as  that  which  comes  from  animals  that  have  been 
forced  to  eat  suspicious  or  poisonous  plants,  ought 
not  to  be  given  to  calves,  and  the  same  applies  to 
the  milk  from  cows  which  have  partaken  of  fodder 
that  has  been  damaged  by  mud  or  fumes,  bran  mixed 
with  sweepings,  or  other  unsuitable  food. 


220  SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

Sour  milk  often  causes  severe  and  even  fatal 
scouring  in  young  stock,  but  faulty  (blue,  yellow, 
salty,  bitter)  milk,  if  boiled,  can  often  be  used  with- 
out any  bad  results  ;  it  is  best,  though,  to  give  it 
to  older  animals. 

Milk  from  animals  suffering  from  contagious 
or  infectious  diseases  (tuberculosis,  foot  and  mouth 
disease,  etc.)  is  the  best  carrier  of  infection  to  other 
animals,  but  if  the  milk  is  heated  to  about  1900  F., 
or,  better  still,  boiled  for  a  few  minutes,  the  danger 
is  removed. 

Separated  milk  from  efficient  separators  does  not 
usually  contain  more  than  -05—2  %  of  fat,  whilst  the 
skim  milk  from  the  old  process  of  skimming  still 
retains  -75-1  %  of  fat.  What  has  been  said 
previously  regarding  whole  milk  applies  equally  to 
separated  or  skim  milk,  save  that  the  smaller 
quantity  of  fat  means  a  less  nutritive  value.  The 
use  of  separated  milk,  and  also  of  whole  milk, 
is  discussed  in  Part  III  of  this  book. 

Butter-milk,  according  to  the  method  of  butter- 
making,  has  the  properties  of  either  sweet  or  more  or 
less  sour  separated  milk,  and  contains  on  an  average 
•4—5  %  fat.  Sour  butter-milk,  like  sour  separated 
milk,  is  best  used  for  fattening  pigs  ;  calves  and 
young  swine  are  not  able  to  make  much  use  of  it  dur- 
ing the  first  few  weeks  of  life,  and  even  later  only 
moderate  quantities,  always  boiled,  should  be  given. 

Whey  which  is  left  after  the  coagulation  of  the 


DESCRIPTION   OF  FEEDING-STUFFS    221 

casein  of  milk  by  rennet  is,  as  its  composition 
shows,  a  very  watery  food,  which  it  is  advisable  to 
feed  in  a  boiled  condition  to  fattening  pigs  ;  for 
delicate  animals  sour  whey  is  not  suitable. 

Meat  meal  is  a  by-product  obtained  in  the  manu- 
facture of  extract  of  meat,  by  Liebig's  method,  in 
South  America.  In  this  process  fresh,  healthy 
meat,  freed  as  far  as  possible  from  bones,  sinews,  and 
fat,  is  chopped  up,  and  then  put  to  soak  in  warm 
water.  The  residue  which  remains  after  extraction 
is  mixed  with  mineral  salts  (potassium  chloride, 
sodium  phosphate,  and  calcium  salts),  then  dried 
thoroughly  and  ground,  and  becomes  the  Liebig's 
meat  meal.  In  some  places  the  flesh  of  sheep  or 
horses  is  used. 

Adulteration  of  the  meat  meal  is  seldom  practised, 
but  occasionally  dried  glue,  cartilage,  also  leather 
and  bone  meal,  are  found.  Meat  meal  is  an  ex- 
cellent means  of  raising  the  protein  in  a  ration,  and 
it  is  principally  used  in  feeding  swine.  Young  pigs 
may  be  given  |-  lb.  to  1  lb.  per  head  per  day,  begin- 
ning with  the  lowest  amount  and  gradually  in- 
creasing the  supply.  Calves  also  do  well  on  this 
food,  and  grown  cattle  may  be  given  up  to  2  lbs. 
per  day  ;  neither  the  milk  nor  butter  is  damaged 
by  the  meat  meal.  Sheep  obstinately  refuse  to 
take  this  preparation. 

Recently  there  has  arisen  a  competing  material 
in  the  shape  of  a  meal  made  from  the  carcasses  of 


222   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

dead  or  poisoned  animals,  refuse  from  slaughter- 
houses, spoiled,  preserved,  or  pickled  meat,  rotten 
fish,  and  waste  flesh  of  all  kinds.  The  carcasses, 
etc.,  are  heated  with  superheated  steam  in  large 
drums  containing  revolving  knives,  and  the  heating 
and  mincing  continued  until  a  dry  powder  is  left. 
Glue  and  fat  which  are  drawn  from  the  drums  are 
obtained  as  by-products.  It  cannot  be  denied  that 
in  this  process  all  is  done  that  it  is  possible  to  do  to 
destroy  the  germs  of  infection  and  to  prevent  a 
subsequent  contamination  with  such  germs.  This 
"  carcass  "  meal  has  already  been  in  use  a  few  years, 
and  no  injurious  effects  have  so  far  been  reported; 
unfortunately  it  is  not  infrequently  sold  as  Liebig's 
meat  meal,  and  at  the  price  of  the  latter.  Compared 
to  this  the  carcass  meal  leaves  much  to  be  desired, 
for,  in  consequence  of  the  bones,  and  remains  of 
food  and  dung,  it  is  poorer  in  protein.  In  conse- 
quence also  of  the  heating  which  the  carcass  meal 
has  undergone,  it  is  less  digestible  and  richer  in  non- 
protein nitrogenous  substances  than  the  meat  meal. 
Horses,  oxen,  and  sheep  either  refuse  to  eat  it  or 
else  do  so  reluctantly,  but  swine  consume  it  readily. 
Fish  meal  is  a  food  manufactured  from  fish,  or 
fish  refuse,  by  heating  the  material  with  superheated 
steam  to  free  it  as  far  as  possible  from  fat,  and  then 
drying,  grinding  and  sifting  the  resulting  powder.  A 
fish  meal  richer  in  fat  is  also  made  from  unsound  fish 
by  a  process  similar  to  that  used  in  the  preparation  of 


DESCRIPTION   OF   FEEDING-STUFFS    223 

the  carcass  meal.  The  composition  of  the  material 
varies  considerably,  owing  to  the  varying  pro- 
portions of  bones  and  heads  that  it  contains,  and 
there  is  always  present,  as  in  carcass  meal,  a 
large  quantity  of  phosphate  of  lime.  Fish  meal 
is  used  in  the  same  way  as  meat  meal,  particularly 
for  feeding  pigs  and  poultry.  It  is  said  to  have 
no  effect  upon  the  milk,  but  a  meal  which  con- 
tained a  lot  of  oil  would  certainly  not  be  as 
suitable  as  one  free  from  oil.  The  flesh  and  bacon 
of  pigs  tend  to  become  oily  where  such  a  meal 
is  used. 

Blood  meal.  By  drying  and  grinding  blood  from 
the  slaughter-houses,  a  good  food  material  which 
is  readily  eaten  by  all  animals  is  obtained,  and  it 
can  be  used  in  a  similar  manner  to  meat  meal.  It 
is  also  used  as  an  addition  to  feeding  loaves  and 
biscuits,  also  for  mixing  with  the  poorer  molasses 
feeds. 

Phosphate  of  lime  for  feeding  purposes  is  a 
material  which  is  known  under  several  names,  and 
is  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  glue  from 
bones.  In  order  to  separate  the  glue-yielding 
substances  from  the  mineral  material  the  bones 
after  cleaning  are  broken  up  and  treated  with 
hydrochloric  acid,  which  brings  the  phosphate  of 
lime  into  solution  along  with  lime  and  phosphoric 
acid.  By  the  addition  of  milk  of  lime  to  the  solution, 
a  white  powder  which  when  dry  contains  on  an 


224   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

average  37-38  %  of  phosphoric  acid  is  obtained. 
This  powder  is  the  phosphate  of  lime  used  for 
feeding  purposes,  in  which  90  %  of  the  phosphoric 
acid  ought  to  be  soluble  in  ammonium  citrate.  The 
phosphate  of  lime  is  valued  according  to  its  content 
of  citrate-soluble  phosphoric  acid.  Often  the  pro- 
duct is  very  damp,  and  therefore  less  valuable  ; 
sometimes  in  it  are  found  dangerous  quantities  of 
arsenic,  soluble  calcium  salts,  or  sulphurous  acid, 
which  latter  is  now  used  in  some  places  instead  of 
hydrochloric  acid  for  dissolving  out  the  mineral 
matter  from  the  bones.  It  is  necessary  to  be 
cautious  in  buying  phosphate  of  lime  for  feeding 
purposes,  for  not  seldom  less  valuable  materials, 
such  as  bone  meal  or  bone  ash,  are  sold,  instead  of 
the  precipitated  phosphate  of  lime.  The  phosphoric 
acid  in  the  last  product  can  be  utilised  to  the  extent 
of  50-60  %,  whereas  the  animal  is  not  able  to 
assimilate  more  than  13-14  %  of  the  phosphoric 
acid  in  the  two  former  products. 


(11)    Cattle  powders. 

In  spite  of  the  many  scientific  investigations 
which  have  been  carried  out  on  the  nutrition 
of  animals,  no  means  have  yet  been  discovered 
whereby  the  digestive  power  of  a  healthy  animal 
can  be  increased  or  its  ability  to  produce  flesh 
augmented.     The    failure    of    competent    men    to 


DESCRIPTION   OF  FEEDING-STUFFS   225 

succeed  in  this  direction  has  not  prevented  dozens 
of  manufacturers  of  cattle  powders  and  similar 
preparations  from  claiming,  without  any  investi- 
gation, that  they  have  been  successful.  The  greater 
the  ignorance  of  these  people  the  more  persistently 
do  they  push  forward  their  so-called  discoveries, 
which  serve  only  to  obtain  other  people's  money. 
For  of  what  are  these  powders  largely  composed  ? 
Only  quite  ordinary  substances  as  a  rule,  such  as 
common  salt,  Glauber's  salt,  bicarbonate  of  soda, 
charcoal,  powdered  sulphur,  bone-ash,  etc. 

In  order  that  these  powders  may  smell  or  taste 
like  a  chemist's  shop  they  are  mixed  with  all  sorts  of 
rubbish  from  the  manufacture  of  drugs  with  a  little 
fennel,  aniseed,  gentian  root,  locust  bean, etc.,  accord- 
ing to  whatever  is  most  convenient.  Testimonials  as 
to  the  favourable  effect  of  the  powders  are  naturally 
not  forgotten,  but  the  value  of  such  testimony  is  well 
known,  for  often  a  packet  of  the  powders  is  bought 
simply  to  get  rid  of  a  persistent  seller,  and  the  next 
time  when  the  man  appears  with  a  ready-prepared 
testimonial  the  former  buyer  is  glad  to  sign  it  so 
as  to  be  left  in  peace.  Even  so-called  experts 
who  have  never  conducted  an  investigation  on 
the  question  of  animal  nutrition  can  be  suborned 
by  high  remuneration  for  this,  as  for  any  other 
fraud. 

It  is  therefore  the  urgent  duty  of  all  those  who 
enjoy  the  confidence  of  their  fellow- workers  to 
Q 


226   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

warn  those  who  are  less  acquainted  with  these 
matters  of  their  true  nature.  A  healthy  animal  is 
much  too  complete  to  require  any  artificial  assistance, 
and  sick  animals  are  not  to  be  cured  by  any  quack 
remedies. 


PART   III 

THE    FEEDING    OF   DOMESTIC    ANIMALS 

UNDER   THE   CONDITIONS    USUALLY 

FOUND    IN    PRACTICE 


CHAPTER    I 

GENERAL    CONSIDERATIONS — EXPERIMENTAL    TRIALS 
IN    PRACTICE 

INVESTIGATIONS  on  the  metabolism  of  material 
and  energy  in  animals  have  shown  that  animal 
heat,  muscular  energy,  and  body  fat  can  arise  from 
proteins  as  well  as  from  fats  and  carbohydrates,  and 
that  a  liberal  supply  of  nitrogen-free  nutrients  allows 
of  the  food  protein  being  reduced  to  a  certain 
quantity  without  detriment  to  the  utility  of  the 
animal.  This  many-sidedness  which  the  animal 
possesses  in  dealing  with  its  nutrients  and  the  margin 
which  is  thereby  allowed  in  the  composition  of  the 
ration  is  of  great  importance  in  practice.  If  the 
cost  of  raising  and  procuring  digestible  protein 
was  about  the  same  as  it  is  for  digestible  carbo- 
hydrates, it  would  be  of  little  importance  whether 
slightly  more  proteins  were  given  than  necessary, 
for  these  substances  are  without  exception  able  to 
perform  the  functions  of  carbohydrates  and  fats. 
But  as  at  the  present  time  protein  matter  is  very 
considerably    dearer    than    carbohydrates,    it    is 

229 


I 


230  SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

essential  to  be  as  economical  as  possible  in  the  use 
of  the  former,  and  to  limit  the  quantity  as  far  as  is 
practicable.  It  thus  becomes  necessary  to  find  what 
this  limit  is  for  the  different  species  of  animals,  and 
the  purposes  for  which  they  are  kept. 

Fats  and  carbohydrates  can  replace  one  another 
both  in  the  production  of  energy  and  of  heat,  and 
i  part  of  fat  in  a  mixed  ration  can  perform  the  func- 
tions of  2-2  parts  carbohydrate.  A  limit,  however, 
is  placed  upon  the  amount  of  fat  in  the  food  of 
domestic  animals,  for  more  than  i  lb.  of  fat  per 
iooo  lbs.  live  weight  often  diminishes  the  appetite, 
and  upsets  the  digestion  in  full-grown  herbivora, 
although  young  animals  can  generally  take  larger 
quantities.  In  addition  to  this  the  fat  of  the  food 
often  has  a  prejudicial  effect  upon  the  body,  or  milk- 
fat,  as  has  already  been  noticed,  and  attention  will 
also  be  drawn  to  this  point  later.  For  these  reasons 
the  amount  and  kind  of  fat  in  the  food  require 
particular  attention. 

Amongst  the  other  constituents  of  the  food 
to  be  considered  are,  in  addition  to  the  mineral 
matter,  the  nitrogenous  substances  of  a  non-protein 
nature,  whose  effect  in  the  production  of  fat  and 
energy  is  included  in  the  "  starch  equivalent  "  of 
the  feeding-stuffs.  In  view  of  what  has  already 
been  said  (p.  65),  it  is  not  correct  to  reckon  these 
substances  as  proteins.  It  would,  in  many  cases, 
be  a  matter  of  indifference  whether,  in  the  calcu- 


GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS         231 

lation  of  a  ration,  the  crude  protein  (proteins+ 
non-protein  nitrogenous  substances)  or  proteins 
alone  were  reckoned,  but  if  the  food  were  rich  in 
amides,  it  is  possible  that  the  animal  would  not  get 
sufficient  proteins  if  the  crude  protein  only  were 
used  in  the  calculation. 

In  order  to  quickly  and  conveniently  see  the 
relation  between  crude  protein  and  the  various 
nitrogen-free  substances,  it  has  been  for  some  time 
the  custom  to  employ  the  "  nutritive  ratio  "  which 
gives  the  amount  of  digestible  nitrogen-free  materials 
of  the  nature  of  carbohydrates  which  falls  to  1 
part  of  digestible  crude  protein.  The  digestible 
portions  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract  and  of  the 
crude  fibre  are  similar  in  their  percentage  compo- 
sition and  heat  value  to  the  carbohydrates  (p.  69)  ; 
the  fat,  however,  is  a  more  concentrated  nutrient, 
and  on  combustion  uses  2*44  times  as  much  oxygen 
as  do  the  carbohydrates.  Formerly  the  amount  of 
oxygen  consumed  in  the  combustion  of  a  material 
was  taken  as  a  standard  of  its  value  in  the  production 
of  heat  and  as  a  nutrient,  so  that  to  calculate  the 
digestible  fat  as  carbohydrate  it  was  multiplied  by 
2-44,  and  the  amount  added  to  the  nitrogen-free 
extract  substances.  To  calculate,  for  example,  the 
nutritive  ratio  of  oats,  which  contain  8-o  %  crude 
protein,  4-0  %  fat,  44-8  %  nitrogen-free  extract,  and 
2-6  %  crude  fibre,  all  of  which  are  in  a  digestible 
form,    the    sum    of    the    carbohydrates    would    be 


232   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

44-8-f-2-6+4.0X2-44=57-2  %.  To  this  57-2  %  car- 
bohydrates fall  8-o  %  crude  protein,  from  which  the 
nutritive  ratio  (8-o:  57-2)  =  !:  7*15  is  calculated. 

A  nutritive  ratio  of  1 :  5-6  is  termed  a  medium 
one,  1 :  2-4  a  narrow  one,  and  1 :  8-12  a  wide  one. 

According  to  recent  investigations  the  factor 
2 -44  for  the  conversion  of  fat  into  carbohydrates  is 
not  correct,  and  is  better  replaced  by  the  number 

2-2. 

If  the  calculations  are  made  with  proteins  instead 
of  crude  protein,  the  following  difference  would  be 
found  in  the  case  of  oats:  44-8+2-6+4X2-2  = 
56-2  %,  and  as  the  oats  contain  7-2  %  proteins, 
there  would  be  56-2  %  carbohydrates  to  7-2  % 
proteins,  which  gives  an  "  albuminoid  ratio " 
(as  it  is  called)  of  1 :  y-8. 

In  the  construction  of  feeding  rations  attention 
has  to  be  paid  to  other  points  besides  the  digestible 
protein  and  the  starch  equivalent,  and  one  of 
these  is  the  suitability  of  the  food  for  the  animal. 
As  has  been  seen  in  Part  II,  there  are  some  species 
which  are  only  able  to  take  small  quantities  of 
some  particular  feeding-stuff,  or  perhaps  none  at  all. 
The  palatableness  of  a  food  must  also  be  studied, 
especially  in  a  fattening  ration  where  large  quantities 
are  given.  It  should  be  a  rule  in  constructing  such 
a  ration  to  unite  in  it  as  many  different  foods  as 
possible,  particularly  concentrated  foods.  The  ad- 
vantages of  this  method  are  numerous ;  if,  for  ex- 


GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS         233 

ample,  one  of  the  foods  is  not  above  suspicion,  then 
the  amount  which  finds  its  way  into  the  daily 
ration  is  so  small  as  to  have  no  bad  effect,  whereas 
a  larger  quantity  might  cause  injury. 

It  is  further  important  not  only  to  draw  the  foods 
which  contain  chiefly  starch  or  sugar  from 
various  sources,  but  also  to  give  the  nitrogenous 
portion  of  the  ration  in  as  many  different  forms  as 
possible.  Some  foods  are  digested  principally  in 
the  stomach,  others  in  the  small  intestine,  whilst 
others  again  undergo  the  chief  digestion  in  the 
large  intestine.  A  mixture  of  several  food-stuffs 
therefore  spreads  the  work  of  digestion  over 
various  parts  of  the  digestive  tract,  and  for  this 
reason  such  a  ration  is  more  suitable  than  one  made 
from  large  quantities  of  a  single  material. 

A  satisfactory  ration  must  further  be  adjusted 
to  the  size  of  the  stomach  and  intestines,  for  if  it 
occupies  too  little  space  the  animal  will  not  be 
satiated,  even  though  it  gets  sufficient  nutrient 
material,  and  so  it  will  be  in  a  restless  and  unsatis- 
factory condition.  On  the  other  hand,  a  ration 
should  not  be  too  voluminous,  for  the  danger  then 
is  that  all  is  not  eaten,  and  so  fattening  does  not 
proceed.  An  idea  of  the  amount  of  food  to  be  given 
can  be  gathered  from  the  feeding  standards  in 
Table  III  of  the  Appendix,  where  the  daily  supply 
of  dry  matter  is  calculated  per  1000  lbs.  body 
weight.     These   figures,    like    others    of   the   same 


234   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

nature,  are  not,  of  course,  to  be  strictly  followed, 
but  they  are  meant  to  indicate  whether  larger  or 
smaller  amounts  of  coarse  fodder  are  necessary. 
Variations  of  10  %  and  more  in  these  data  are  not 
of  great  importance,  provided  the  animals  are 
gradually  accustomed  to  the  changed  food.  The 
supply  of  home-produced  food-stuffs  will  determine, 
in  the  first  place,  whether  a  more  or  less  voluminous 
food  is  chosen.  When  fodder  is  scarce  it  is  often 
difficult  to  find  substitutes,  and  recourse  to  such 
little-used  materials  as  potato-tops,  gorse,  heather, 
even  sawdust,  has  to  be  had  in  order  to  provide 
the  animals  with  the  necessary  bulky  stuff.  A 
mixture  of  ground  peat  moss  free  from  sand  with 
diluted  molasses  has  proved  to  be  a  suitable  sub- 
stance in  such  cases.  Compared  with  the  large  losses 
which  a  reduction  in  the  stock  of  cattle  brings  at 
the  time  of  a  scarcity  of  food  the  drawbacks  associ- 
ated with  the  use  of  indigestible  materials  pass  into 
the  background. 

Whenever  a  change  of  food  is  made  it  should  be 
gradual,  even  an  increase  in  the  volume  can  cause  dis- 
turbances if  suddenly  made,  for  the  natural  expansion 
of  the  digestive  tract  is  limited.  When  the  increase  is 
gradual,  the  digestive  organs  expand  by  the  growth 
of  their  walls,  but  for  this  time  is  necessary. 

In  the  use  of  new  concentrated  foods  caution 
is  also  necessary,  for  every  food  has  its  peculiari- 
ties, particularly  in  its  action  upon  the  nervous 


GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS         235 

system.  Against  disturbing  effects  of  this  nature, 
and  even  against  the  most  powerful  poisons,  the 
body  produces  substances  of  an  antitoxic  nature, 
and  can  even  withstand  deadly  doses  of  arsenic, 
morphia,  ricinine,  etc.,  if  by  their  very  gradual 
introduction  time  is  allowed  for  the  preparation 
of  the  corresponding  antidote.  If  the  body,  how- 
ever, is  suddenly  given  large  quantities  of  these 
injurious  materials,  it  suffers  from  the  action  of  the 
poisons.  For  this  reason  a  new  feeding-stuff  should 
not  at  once  be  fed  in  full  quantities,  but  the  daily 
supply  increased  so  that  4-7  days  are  taken  to 
reach  the  full  amount.  A  gradual  change  is  also 
necessary  in  passing  from  stall-  to  meadow-feeding 
and  vice  versa,  so  also  when  green  fodder,  roots, 
silage  are  introduced  into  the  ration,  or  when  a 
change  is  made  in  the  concentrated  food.  When 
new  hay  or  oats  are  substituted  for  old,  when  feed- 
ing with  molasses  begins,  or  even  when  the  food 
is  altered  the  change  must  be  gradual.  The  greater 
the  difference  between  the  new  food  and  the  old 
the  longer  should  the  transition  period  be.  The 
custom  of  dividing  the  daily  ration  into  several 
meals  is  entirely  sound  from  the  point  of  view  of 
the  food  metabolism  in  the  body,  for  the  heat  which 
is  produced  during  and  after  feeding  is  divided 
more  regularly  over  the  day  and  night,  and  so  is 
better  utilised.  The  production  value  of  the  nu- 
trients is  also  greater  when  the  food  is  spread  over 


236   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

a  certain  space  of  time  ;  this  has  been  proved  in 
fattening  experiments,  when  the  same  quantity  of 
food  was  given  at  once  and  where  it  was  divided 
into  several  meals.  The  capacity  of  the  digestive 
organs,  and  the  behaviour  of  animals  free  to  eat 
when  they  wish,  point  to  the  division  of  the  ration 
into  three,  or  at  most  four  meals  for  full-grown 
animals,  and  four  to  six  for  young  ones,  as  being 
the  most  natural.  When  large  quantities  of  fodder 
are  given  at  one  time  portions  are  very  liable  to 
be  thrown  about  and  to  be  trodden  under  foot. 
Regularity  in  the  times  of  feeding  plays  a  not  un- 
important part  in  the  comfort  and  well-being  of 
the  animal.  By  a  suitable  admixture  of  tasty 
foods  with  those  that  are  not  so  readily  eaten  the 
appetite  of  the  animal  is  maintained  to  the  end  of 
the  meal,  and  so  the  ration  is  fully  consumed. 
With  ruminants  and  horses  it  is  usual  to  first  give 
coarse  or  green  fodder,  and  then  the  mixture  of 
chopped  hay  or  straw  or  roots  and  concentrated 
food.  This  ensures  the  consumption  of  each  portion 
of  the  ration  before  the  next  is  begun.  Finally  some 
long  hay  or  straw  for  the  animal  to  eat  at  leisure 
should  be  given.  The  order  in  which  the  food  is  fed 
can  be  altered  according  to  taste,  so  long  as  the  chief 
end — a  complete  consumption — is  attained. 

Mention  has  already  been  made  (p.  94)  of  the 
necessity  of  an  addition  of  salt  to  the  food,  and  the 
daily  need  of  a  cow  of  average  weight  is  f— ij  oz., 


GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS         237 

for  a  horse  |-i  oz.,  sheep  or  pig  -J— J-  oz. ;  and  this  is 
best  sprinkled  over  the  food,  as  animals  are  apt  to 
'-  take  too  much  when  a  lump  of  rock  salt  is  given 
them  to  lick.  If  materials  which  are  difficult  of 
digestion  have  to  be  given  in  large  quantities, 
then  the  supply  of  salt  may  be  increased  to  2\  oz. 
for  cattle,  and  \  oz.  for  pigs  and  sheep  ;  more  than 
these  quantities  should  not  under  any  circumstances 
be  given.  As  regards  the  watering  of  animals, 
it  is  preferable  to  let  cattle  have  as  much  water  as 
they  will  take  after  the  first  portion  of  the  dry  fodder 
has  been  eaten;  horses  should  be  watered  before 
being  fed,  otherwise  portions  of  the  concentrated 
food  (oats,  barley,  etc.)  may  be  washed  from  the 
stomach  into  the  intestine,  and  so  not  properly 
digested.  When  horses  are  overheated  or  have 
been  without  water  for  a  long  time  care  should  be 
exercised,  and  they  should  only  be  allowed  to  drink 
l  when  they  have  cooled  down,  and  the  respiration 
and  pulse  are  again  normal.  Such  heated  animals 
may  be  given  some  hay  moistened  with  water,  and 
then  each  quarter  of  an  hour  more  water  can  be 
poured  on  to  the  hay.  Sheep,  pigs,  and  young 
animals  do  best  when  they  have  an  unlimited  supply 
of  water  at  their  disposal.  A  suitable  ration,  care 
being  exercised  in  the  choice  of  the  individual  foods 
and  in  the  total  bulk,  punctuality  in  feeding  and 
watering,  cleanliness  of  the  manger  and  drinking 
vessels,  adequate  grooming,  a  well-ventilated  stable 


238   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

or  stall  of  medium  temperature  with  clean  bedding, 
are  the  chief  points  essential  for  success  in  feeding 
domestic  animals. 

A  great  deal  of  the  work  of  investigation  which 
has  been  done  in  agricultural  practice,  it  is  safe  to 
say,  has  entirely  failed  in  its  object,  because  the 
methods  of  research  have  been  faulty.  It  is 
therefore  not  out  of  place  to  mention  here  the  chief 
rules  to  be  followed  in  experiments  which  are  being 
carried  out  in  practice.  The  conditions  under 
which  a  feeding  experiment  is  performed  must  be 
so  arranged  that  every  chance  of  accident  is  ex- 
cluded. In  the  first  place  care  must  be  taken  that 
the  individual  characters  of  the  animals  used  in  the 
investigation  do  not  disturb  the  observations — one 
of  the  most  important  conditions.  If  only  a  few 
animals  are  used  this  influence  cannot  be  rightly 
judged  nor  can  allowance  be  made  for  it.  In 
scientific  investigations  the  conditions  are  in  many 
ways  more  favourable,  for  there,  owing  to  the 
examination  of  all  parts  of  the  metabolism,  a 
much  more  complete  control  is  possible.  A  con- 
scientious investigator  does  not,  however,  remain 
satisfied  with  a  single  animal  when  he  believes 
he  has  made  any  discovery,  and  refrains  from 
publishing  the  result  until  it  has  stood  the  test 
of  repetition.  People  who  have  not  had  a  regular 
training,  and  are  not  thoroughly  versed  in  one 
or    the    other    methods  of   investigation,   attempt 


GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS         239 

difficult  problems,  and  do  not  hesitate  to  give  to 
the  world  their  unripe  results  clothed  in  a  scien- 
tific dressing.  In  time  the  valuelessness  of  their 
conclusions  is  recognised,  but  the  distrust  that 
they  have  sown  is  not  so  easily  uprooted. 

The  practical  man,  no  less  than  the  scientist, 
whose  aim  is  directed  to  the  laws  of  nutrition, 
has  to  work  on  a  broad  basis  if  he  wishes  to  make 
clear  some  of  the  points  which  interest  him  in  the 
feeding  of  his  cattle.  He  must  first  of  all  use  a 
number  of  animals,  in  order  to  get  rid  of  individual 
peculiarities,  and  ought  to  choose  ten,  even  better 
fifteen  or  twenty,  animals  for  each  section.  It  is 
only  the  continued  repetition  of  an  experiment  with 
other  animals  which  will  yield  a  satisfactory  answer 
to  the  question  under  examination. 

He  who  begins  a  great  deal  finishes  little,  and 
this  holds  true  also  with  the  investigations  under 
consideration.  If  it  were  wished,  for  example,  to  test 
ten  feeding-stuffs  one  after  another  in  a  continuous 
experiment  it  is  certain  that  the  results  would  be  of 
doubtful  value,  for  the  condition  of  the  animals 
would  vary  according  to  the  kind  and  quantity 
of  the  food  used  in  the  experiment.  Nobody  will 
suggest  that  a  lean  animal  behaves  as  does  a  fat 
one  when  each  gets  the  same  food,  nor  an  old  animal 
as  a  young  one. 

Continuous  investigations  on  the  same  animals 
in    which    the    food    is    changed   periodically    are, 


240   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF    ANIMALS 

therefore,  not  free  from  objections,  and  the  results 
are  more  reliable  when  the  trials  are  carried  out 
upon  groups  of  animals  at  the  same  time.  Here 
also  the  chief  condition  is  that  the  groups  which  are 
to  be  compared  with  one  another  should  be  equiva- 
lent at  the  beginning  of  the  investigation  as  regards 
race,  age,  sex,  live  weight,  etc.,  of  the  animals,  in 
fact,  one  group  must  be  the  counterpart  of  the 
other.  When  such  groups  have  been  arranged, 
a  preliminary  trial  must  be  made  to  see  if  they 
behave  similarly  on  the  same  food.  Should  differ- 
ences be  observed  changes  must  be  made  in  the 
groups  until  a  close  agreement  is  found,  afterwards 
the  food  to  be  investigated  may  be  given. 

Investigations,  then,  are  of  two  kinds,  those 
conducted  in  periods  and  those  in  groups  ;  the 
former  have  only  a  limited  use,  for  the  animals 
change  in  condition,  especially  young  and  fattening 
cattle,  and  so  the  conclusions  are  not  reliable. 
With  milking  cows,  though,  this  method  can  be 
used,  and  mention  will  be  made  of  it  later. 

With  regard  to  the  kind  and  quantity  of  the  food 
used  in  the  trial  it  is  impossible  to  give  any  general 
rules,  for  each  investigation  has  different  objects. 
Where  a  feeding-stuff  is  being  tested  the  total 
quantity  of  food  must  not  be  too  large,  because 
with  excess  the  nutrients  in  different  rations  would 
not  show  any  difference  at  all.  If  the  object  is  to 
see  how  varying  quantities  of  protein  in  the  food 


GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS         241 

act,  the  starch  equivalent  of  the  rations  under 
comparison  must  be  kept  the  same,  as  must  all 
other  conditions,  except  on  the  one  point  which  is 
being  tested.  Further,  a  chemical  and  micro- 
scopical examination  is  also  essential,  for  it  is 
only  by  these  means  that  the  nutritive  value  of 
the  food-stuff  can  be  judged.  In  very  many  cases, 
whether  the  investigations  are  concerned  with 
fattening,  working,  or  breeding  stock,  the  live  weight 
is  the  most  important,  and  often  the  only  means  of 
judging  of  the  action  of  the  food.  Owing  to  the 
considerable  differences  in  weight,  due  to  irregular 
excretion  of  dung  and  urine  and  to  the  unequal 
consumption  of  drinking  water,  it  is  not  enough  to 
weigh  the  animals  every  fourteen  days  or  so,  but 
the  weighing  must  always  be  done  on  three  con- 
secutive days  at  exactly  the  same  time,  and  pre- 
ferably before  the  first  meal.  The  length  of  the 
experiment  ought  also  not  to  be  too  short  with 
fattening  and  working  animals  ;  the  minimum 
should  be  two  months,  and  it  is  even  better  to 
take  a  longer  period,  particularly  in  feeding  groups 
of  animals,  which  ought  to  be  carried  on  until 
ready  for  the  butcher.  Important  manifestations, 
such  as  loss  of  appetite,  cessation  of  growth  in 
young  animals,  diminished  staying  power  in  working 
animals,  often  only  appear  after  the  investigation 
has  been  in  progress  for  a  length  of  time. 

All  other  conditions,  such  as  temperature  of  the 


242   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

stall,  supply  of  salt,  bedding,  grooming,  number 
of  meals,  etc.,  must  be  kept  the  same  in  each  group 
or  each  period. 

The  care  which  according  to  the  above  is  essential 
in  the  carrying  out  of  an  investigation  may  seem 
to  some  to  be  exaggerated.  It  is  only  those  who 
know  from  experience  how  changeful  an  animal 
is,  and  have  critically  studied  the  reports  of  in- 
vestigations in  practice,  who  cannot  doubt  that 
the  most  strict  care  is  essential  in  conducting  such 
investigations.  He  who  does  not  or  will  not  con- 
sider these  demands  to  be  necessary  had  far  better 
not  undertake  investigations,  for  he  will  only 
succeed  in  increasing  the  huge  number  of  valueless 
results. 


CHAPTER    II 

MAINTENANCE   RATION   FOR   OXEN   AT   REST 

THE  feeding  of  working  oxen  at  rest  in  the 
stall  is  the  simplest  of  the  tasks  which 
the  owner  of  cattle  has  to  undertake.  The 
animals  to  be  dealt  with  are  practically  sexless, 
little  subject  to  nervous  influences,  and  except  for 
the  slight  growth  of  hair,  hoofs  and  horns,  do  not 
increase  in  size,  nor  do  they  perform  any  utilisable 
work.  The  chief  aim,  then,  is  to  feed  such  resting 
animals  so  that  the  body  does  not  need  to  supply 
any  of  its  substance  for  the  production  of  energy, 
and  that,  on  the  other  hand,  there  shall  be  no  excess 
of  food  to  be  made  into  body  fat. 

According  to  some  of  the  older  observations 
which  were  confined  to  the  digestible  nutrients  of 
the  food  and  the  protein  metabolism,  it  was  possible 
to  keep  oxen  at  rest  in  the  stall  on  the  following 
daily  rations,  calculated  per  iooo  lbs.  live  weight, 
without  loss  of  weight. 

i-o  lb.  rape  cake 

o-5  h 

ob  „ 
o-6  „ 

243 


I. 

12-6  lbs.  oat  straw 

25-6  lbs.  mangels 

2. 

14-2  „ 

26  ,,     clover  hay 

3- 

130  »»           „ 

37  >, 

4- 

l33  n    rye  straw 

3-8  ., 

244  SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

The  temperature  of  the  stall,  which,  as  has  pre- 
viously been  seen  (p.  52),  also  has  an  influence  upon 
the  consumption  of  nutrients  in  an  animal  on  a  low 
diet,  because  of  the  heat  given  off  from  the  body, 
was  kept  fairly  high  in  these  investigations 
(54~68°F.).  It  must  also  be  remembered  that  at 
the  time  of  these  experiments — some  forty  years 
ago — the  varieties  of  cereals  which  were  grown 
gave  a  more  digestible  straw  than  those  cultivated 
at  the  present  time. 

On  the  above  rations  a  slight  increase  of  tissue 
took  place,  which  sufficed  for  the  growth  of  hoofs 
and  horns  and  for  the  renewal  of  the  hairy  covering. 
Whether  an  increase  in  body  fat  also  took  place 
was  not  proved,  but  in  any  case  the  body  weight 
of  the  experimental  animals  underwent  no  change 
for  a  long  time. 

More  exact  investigations  which  were  later 
carried  out  with  the  help  of  the  respiration  chamber 
gave  the  following  results  per  day  and  per  1000  kg. 
(1  kg.  =2*2  lbs.)  live  weight. 

INSUFFICIENT    FOOD. 


Digesti 

ble  nutrients. 

Addition  (+) 

'"«  \—jvi 

Nitrogen-free 

Starch 

extract  and 

equiva- 

Body 

Ox 

Protein. 

Fat. 

crude  fibre. 

lent. 

Flesh. 

fat. 

No. 

kg. 

kg- 

kg. 

kg. 

g- 

g- 

III. 

o-35 

O-IO 

6-17 

4«oo 

~     51 

+  139 

IV. 

o-34 

O-IO 

6-o8 

3-96 

-   57 

+  45 

B 

0-28 

0-I2 

6-63 

4'52 

-144 

-172 

c1 

0-42 

02I 

6-58 

4«6o 

-     6 

+     1 

Average 

o-35 

0-13 

6-37 

4.28 

-   65 

+     3 

MAINTENANCE  RATION   FOR  OXEN     245 


01. 

Digest: 

1  r  r  i\^ii^n  ± 
ible  nutrients. 

r  \j\ji-r. 

Addition  (+) 
or  loss  (  -  )  of 

r 

Nitrogen -free 

Starch 

extract  and 

equiva- 

Body 

Ox 

Protein. 

Fat. 

crude  fibre. 

lent. 

Flesh. 

fat. 

No. 

kg- 

kg. 

kg. 

kg. 

S- 

Z- 

V. 

0-6o 

0-07 

6-45 

5.04 

4-    48 

+  235 

VI. 

O.57 

0-07 

6.3I 

4.64 

+    26 

+  263 

20 

0-65 

0  20 

6.78 

576 

-      7 

+  158 

A 

0-56 

0-18 

6-62 

5-44 

+   66 

+  227 

C2 

0-54 

0-28 

7-26 

5-04 

+  161 

+   37 

Average  0-59        0-20        6-68         5-20         +    59         +184 

When  the  figures  for  the  animals  which  were  in- 
sufficiently fed  are  compared  with  those  obtained 
when  the  food  was  sufficient,  it  is  seen  that  the 
sum  of  the  digestible  nutrients  had  less  influence 
upon  the  equilibrium  of  the  animal  than  had  the 
starch  equivalents  or  values  of  the  whole  rations. 
Thus  in  a  maintenance  diet  attention  has  also  to 
be  paid  to  the  value  of  the  nutrients.  If,  for  ex- 
ample, the  ration  given  to  ox  A,  which  consisted 
of  8-5  kg.  meadow  hay,  were  replaced  to  the  extent 
of  one-half  by  potatoes  and  rape  cake,  then,  instead 
of  7  kg.  digestible  nitrogen-free  nutrients  (including 
fat),  there  would  only  have  been  6  kg.,  but  this 
would  have  sufficed. 

For  full-grown  oxen  which  have  not  to  perform 
work  and  are  kept  at  a  temperature  of  54-600  F., 
it  suffices  for  maintenance  to  give  0-5  kg.  digestible 
protein,  and  5-2  kg.  starch  equivalent.  As,  how- 
ever, in  practice  it  is  not  advisable,  owing  to  the 
individuality  of  the  animals,  to  restrict  the  feeding 
to  the  absolute  minimum,  it  is  preferable  to  reckon 


246   SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

per  day  0-6-0-8  lb.  digestible  protein,  and  8-9-5  lbs. 
digestible  nitrogen-free  nutrients  (including  fat)  with 
a  starch  equivalent  of  6-o  lbs.  per  1000  lbs.  live 
weight.  With  these  figures  the  dry  matter  of  the 
ration  can  oscillate  between  15  and  21  lbs.  This 
standard  ration  assumes  that  primarily  coarse 
fodder  will  be  used,  and  that  any  deficit  in  protein 
will  be  made  good  by  small  additions  of  oil  cakes, 
distillers'  waste,  brewers'  grains,  etc.,  and  a  lack 
of  carbohydrates  by  roots  or  tubers  or  their  by- 
products. Such  rations  contain  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  mineral  substances,  for  investigations  on  this 
point  have  shown  that  the  daily  consumption  of 
50  g.  phosphoric  acid  and  100  g.  lime  per  1000  kg. 
live  weight  sufficiently  meet  all  requirements.  As 
the  larger  animals  of  1000  kg.  (2200  lbs.)  give  off 
less  heat  than  do  the  smaller  ones  (p.  53),  it  is 
necessary  on  a  maintenance  diet  to  pay  attention 
to  this,  for  there  is  not  then  the  excess  of  heat  as 
when  on  a  production  ration.  Calculated  per  body 
surface,  the  following  weights  of  food  are  to  be  given 
per  1000  kg.  when  the  single  animals  weigh : 

300,     400,      500,      600,      700,      800  kg., 
starch  equivalent: 

7-70,  7-00,  6-50,  6-io,  5-80,  5-55  kg. 
The  maintenance  ration  for  animals  which  only 
weigh  300  kg.  is,  therefore,  28  %  greater  per  1000  kg. 
than  for  animals  of  800  kg.  As  regards  the  require- 
ments of  animals  for  protein,  their  size  has  no 
noticeable  influence. 


CHAPTER    III 

THE    MAINTENANCE    RATION    FOR    SHEEP — THE    PRO- 
DUCTION  OF  WOOL 

IN  addition  to  the  material  and  energy  which 
every  animal  requires  for  maintaining  life,  there 
is  in  the  sheep  a  further  demand  for  material  for 
the  production  of  wool,  and  this  being  of  a  protein 
nature,  requires  protein  for  its  formation.  It  is, 
therefore,  clear  that  sheep  require  more  food  pro- 
tein than  do  full-grown  oxen  at  rest  in  the  stall. 
The  greater  sensitiveness  of  sheep  and  the  liveliness 
of  their  movements,  as  well  as  the  greater  extent 
of  body  surface,  all  point  to  the  increased  needs 
of  this  species  for  nitrogenous  nutrients,  as  com- 
pared with  resting  oxen,  even  though  the  wool 
of  the  former  protects  them  from  loss  of  heat. 

Amongst  the  first  investigations  carried  out  on 
the  maintenance  food  for  sheep  was  one  series  with 
two  4j-year-old  wethers  of  a  coarse- wo  oiled  Hanover 
breed.  The  animals  had  an  average  weight  of 
47*9  kg.,  including  2-4  kg.  wool,  and  they  were 
given  daily  per  1000  kg.  live  weight  (without  wool) 
25-96  kg.  meadow  hay,  which  contained  in  digestible 

247 


248   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

material  1-04  kg.  protein,  0*32  kg.  fat,  6-28  kg. 
nitrogen-free  extract  substance,  and  3-93  kg.  crude 
fibre,  the  total  starch  equivalent  being  9-66  kg. 
On  this  ration  there  was  a  daily  gain  of  144  g.  flesh, 
325  g.  body  fat,  and  209  g.  wool,  which  is  altogether 
equal  to  a  starch  value  of  i-88  kg.  If  there  had 
been  no  gain  of  wool,  flesh,  or  fat,  the  animals 
would  have  found  enough  food  in  778  kg.  starch 
equivalent  per  1000  kg.  naked  body  weight. 

In  another  experiment  with  a  half-fat  English 
cross-bred  sheep  which  weighed  64-9  kg.  with  its 
wool,  and  without  62-4  kg.,  the  daily  ration  was 
550  g.  meadow  hay,  and  440  g.  coarsely  ground 
maize.  Calculating  the  ration  upon  1000  kg. 
naked  body  weight,  it  would  contain  o-8i  kg. 
protein,  0-40  kg.  fat,  7-05  kg.  nitrogen-free  extract 
substance,  and  1-37  kg.  crude  fibre,  together  with 
a  starch  value  of  11-24  kg.  The  production, 
which  was  ascertained  by  means  of  the  respiration 
apparatus,  yielded  by  this  ration  was  71  g.  each, 
flesh  and  wool  and  785  g.  body  fat,  which  means  a 
starch  value  of  3-28  kg.  If  this  portion  of  food  which 
has  served  for  the  purposes  of  production  is  sub- 
tracted from  the  total  quantity  given,  there  remains 
7-96  kg.  starch  value  for  the  simple  maintenance  of 
the  animal. 

Mention  might  perhaps  be  made  here  of  the 
relation  between  the  nutrients  given  and  the  pro- 
duction  which   was    observed   in    the   above   two 


MAINTENANCE   RATION   FOR  SHEEP    249 

experiments.  The  amounts  digested  per  1000  kg. 
naked  body  weight  were  : — 

With   meadow   hay    1*04  kg.   protein    and    10*94  kg. 

carbohydrates. 
With  meadow  hay  and   maize   o*8i  kg.    protein   and 

9*30  kg.  carbohydrates. 

That  is,  less  nutrients  when  hay  and  maize  were 
given  than  when  hay  alone.  In  spite  of  this,  the 
production  on  the  hay  ration  was  considerably  less 
(325  g.  body  fat)  than  when  maize  was  also  given 
(785  g.  body  fat).  This  is  again  a  good  proof  of  the 
differences  in  the  feeding  value  of  the  digested 
materials  and  of  the  correctness  of  reckoning  ac- 
cording to  starch  values.  In  both  cases  for  main- 
tenance alone  there  was  required  practically  the 
same  starch  value — 778  kg.  or  7-96  kg. — as  com- 
pared with  5 -2  kg.  for  the  ox. 

From  the  results  of  all  the  investigations  which 
have  been  recorded  up  to  the  present  it  may  be  said 
that  maintenance  of  life  and  the  production  of 
wool  are  assured  if  sheep  of  the  larger  breeds  are 
given  per  1000  lbs.  body  weight  a  daily  ration  con- 
taining 1  lb.  digestible  protein  together  with  8-3  lbs. 
starch  equivalent,  but  the  smaller  breeds  must  have 
slightly  more,  viz.  1-2  lbs.  protein,  and  9-0  lbs. 
starch  equivalent. 

There  is  further  the  question  of  the  influence  of 
food  on  the  growth  of  the  wool.  It  is  known  that 
in  human  beings  who  have  to  subsist  for  a  con- 


250  SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

siderable  time  on  insufficient  food,  or  who  may  even 
be  starving,  the  growth  of  the  hair  and  the  beard 
does  not  entirely  cease.  The  formation  of  hair  or 
wool  does,  however,  most  certainly  diminish  when 
,  through  improper  nutrition  the  body  weight  sinks 
below  a  certain  amount.  This  may  be  seen  from  an 
investigation  where  two  groups  of  twelve  sheep  were 
taken  and  one  group  fed  on  meadow  hay  and  ground 
beans  for  four  months,  the  weights  at  the  beginning 
being  46-50  kg.  and  at  the  end  46-55  kg.  The 
second  group  were  fed  on  oat  straw  and  mangels, 
and  their  weight,  which  was  46-1  kg.  at  the  begin- 
ning, sank  to  44-1  kg.  during  the  four  months  the 
experiment  lasted.  The  first  group  during  the 
experiment  made  9-12  kg.  of  roughly  washed  wool, 
which  contained  5-99  kg.  pure  wool,  and  the  second 
group,  which  were  underfed,  yielded  only  7-02  kg. 
of  roughly  washed  wool,  of  which  4-58  kg.  was  pure. 
Similar  results  were  shown  in  another  experiment, 
where  the  following  figures  per  day  and  per  1000  kg. 
live  weight  were  obtained  : — 

in. 
Increase  in  body  weight   0-79 kg. 
Growth  of  wool       .         .   0-16  „ 
Growth  of  wool  expressed 

in  percentage  of  weight 

of  fleece       .         .         .  0-306%      0-292%      0-293%      0-237% 

As  is  seen  in  sections  III,  I,  and  IV,  the  growth 
of  wool  does  not  always  suffer  when  the  body 
weight    diminishes  ;    but  when,  as    in  section  II. 


I. 

IV. 

II. 

0-42  kg. 

017  kg. 

1.05  kg. 

0-15   » 

0-15  » 

0-13  „ 

MAINTENANCE   RATION   FOR   SHEEP    251 

the  decrease  of  weight  passes  a  certain  limit,  then 
the  yield  of  wool  is  less.  As  wool  can  only  be 
formed  from  protein,  it  is  most  probable  that  of 
those  rations  which  do  not  suffice  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  animal,  those  which  contain  sufficient 
protein  will  have  the  least  unfavourable  influence 
upon  the  wool,  and  this  has  been  confirmed  in 
numerous  investigations. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  more  food  is  given  than 
is  necessary,  the  production  of  wool  is  not  thereby 
increased  to  any  extent.  The  mean  figures  ob- 
tained in  seven  experiments  with  a  bare  maintenance 
diet  and  in  fourteen  experiments  with  a  feeding 
ration,  were,  in  the  first  case,  141  g.  of  wool= 0-273  % 
of  the  weight  of  the  fleece,  at  the  end  of  the  in- 
vestigation, and,  in  the  second  case,  141  g.  wool= 
0-286  %  of  the  weight  of  the  fleece. 

In  another  experiment  with  lambs  five  months 
old,  one  group  were  given  meadow  hay  and 
oats,  and  weighed  in  the  beginning  25-4  kg.  per 
head,  and  at  the  end  of  nine  months  46-25  kg., 
the  animals  being  then  fat.  The  other  group  were 
given  meadow  hay  only,  and  the  average  weight 
of  each  lamb  was  25-0  kg.  at  the  beginning,  and 
36-15  kg.  at  the  end;  the  uncleaned  wool  weighed 
2-69  kg.  as  compared  with  2-18  kg.  uncleaned 
wool  from  the  animals  which  had  -received  hay  and 
oats. 

To  sum  up,  then,  the  growth  of  wool  only  suffers 


252   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

when,  in  consequence  of  insufficient  food,  the  live 
weight  of  the  animal  steadily  decreases.  Very  rich 
feeding,  though,  does  not,  on  the  other  hand, 
cause  a  greater  growth  of  wool  than  when  a  suf- 
ficient maintenance  ration  is  given. 

With  regard  to  the  feeding-stuffs  which  may  be 
used,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  give  an  excess 
of  watery  foods,  for  these  are  not  good  for  sheep. 
Roots  and  tubers,  on  this  account,  are  only  used 
as  subsidiary  foods,  and  the  main  diet  is  composed 
of  the  different  varieties  of  hay  and  straw,  and  the 
lack  of  protein  made  good  with  small  quantities 
of  oil  cakes,  lupines,  dried  grains,  dried  distillers' 
waste,  etc.  Full-grown  sheep  only  require  very 
small  amounts  of  bone-forming  mineral  substances, 
for  it  has  been  found  that  two-year-old  wethers 
which  had  ceased  to  grow  and  weighed  55  kg.  only 
required  0-57  g.  lime  and  0*05  g.  phosphoric  acid, 
which  quantities  are  to  be  obtained  from  the  usual 
rations. 


CHAPTER    IV 

THE   FATTENING   OF   FULL-GROWN   ANIMALS 

THE  changes  which  the  composition  of  the 
bodies  of  domestic  animals  undergoes  have 
been  ascertained  directly  by  the  analysis  of  whole 
animals  and  single  parts  of  them.  For  this  purpose 
the  following  were  used  : — 

Two  oxen  of  4  years  of  age,  one  of  which  weighed 
558-8  kg.,  and  was  partially  fat,  and  the  other 
weighed  6437  kg.,  and  may  be  regarded  as  being 
fat. 

Four  sheep  of  the  Hampshire  Down  breed : 

(a)  Lean,        1  year  old,  and  44-3  kg.  weight. 

(b)  Half  fat,  3J         „       „        477   „ 

(c)  Fat,  ij-         „       „        577   „ 

(d)  Very  fat,  if-         „       „      108-6    ,, 

Two  pigs  of  the  same  breed,  one  of  which  was  lean, 
and  weighed  42-6  kg.,  and  the  other  had  been  fat- 
tened for  ten  weeks,  and  weighed  83-9  kg. 

One  fat  Durham  calf,  8-9  weeks  old,  and  weighing 
117-4  kg. 

One  lamb,  6  months  old,  and  38-3  kg.  in  weight. 
253 


254  SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

These  ten  animals  were  analysed  18-24  hours  after 
the  last  food  was  given,  and  the  percentage  com- 
position is  shown  below  : — 


Contents 

of  stomach 

Nitrogenous 

Mineral 

Dry 

and  intes- 

matter. 

Fat. 

substances. 

matter. 

Water. 

tine,  moist. 

Ox,  half  fat     . 

16-6 

I9.I 

4-7 

40'3 

5I.4 

8-2 

„    fat    . 

14-5 

30-I 

3-9 

48-5 

45-5 

6.o 

Sheep,  lean 

14-8 

I87 

3-2 

367 

57-3 

6-o 

„       half  fat 

14-0 

23-5 

3*2 

407 

50-2 

9-1 

„      fat        . 

12-2 

35-6 

2-8 

50-6 

43-5 

6-o 

„       very  fat 

io-8 

45-8 

29 

59-6 

35-2 

5-2 

Pig,  lean 

13-7 

23-3 

2-7 

39-7 

55'i 

5-2 

„    fat  . 

109 

42-2 

i-7 

54-7 

4i-3 

4-0 

Calf,  fat  . 

15.2 

14-8 

3-8 

33-8 

63-0 

3-2 

Lamb,  fat 

12.5 

28.5 

2-9 

437 

47-8 

8.5 

According  to  these  figures  the  increase  of  body 
substance  during  fattening  had  the  following  com- 
position : — 


Nitrogenous 
matter. 

Fat. 

Mineral 
substances. 

Dry 

matter. 

Water. 

Ox 

Sheep 

Pig 

7-7 

7-i 

.        7-8 

66-2 
70.4 
63.I 

i-5 

2-3 

0.5 

75-4 
79-9 
71-4 

24-6 
20-1 
28-6 

Average     7»5  66-6  1-4  75-6  24-4 

In  considering  the  above  figures  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  they  deal  for  the  most  part  with 
either  young  animals  or  those  which  have  scarcely 
completed  their  growth.  Still,  it  is  clearly  shown 
here  that  the  increase  of  body  substance  on  fattening 
is  composed  at  least  of  two-thirds  of  fat,  a  quarter 
of  water,  and  only  to  a  very  small  extent  of  nitro- 


FATTENING  OF  GROWN  ANIMALS    255 

genous  substance.  The  greater  part  of  this  last 
goes  to  increase  the  amount  of  blood,  and  only  the 
residue  is  used  for  the  formation  of  flesh.  With 
animals  of  an  advanced  age  which  are  not  in  a 
very  low  condition,  but  moderately  well  nourished, 
there  is  very  little  gain  in  flesh  to  be  reckoned 
upon  after  fattening.  The  microscopic  examination 
of  the  muscle  fibres  of  young  and  old  animals  has 
shown  this  (p.  62),  and  the  chemical  analysis 
carried  out  on  grown  animals  at  different  periods  of 
fattening  has  confirmed  it.  In  order  that  the 
differences  in  the  condition  of  flesh  and  fat  can  be 
recognised  during  fattening,  a  number  of  sheep  2f 
years  old  were  taken  and  divided  into  groups,  one 
being  killed  and  examined  at  once,  another  after 
2  J,  and  the  third  after  6J  months'  feeding.  The 
results  showed  that  the  animals  contained  the 
following  amounts  of  flesh  per  head  : — 

Group  I.  Group  II.  Group  III. 

11-891  kg.     . .     11740  kg.     . .     12-123  kg. 
which  is  in  the  proportion  of  : — 
100  :  99  :  102 
There  was  thus  no  increase  in  flesh  to  be  noted  as 
the  result  of  fattening.     On  the  other  hand,  the 
quantity  of  fat  per  animal  was  : — 

5-406  kg.     . .     15-077  kg.     . .     19-019  kg. 
which  may  be  expressed  thus  : —  - 
100  :  279  :  352 
From  which  it  is  seen  that  when  grown  animals  in 


256   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF    ANIMALS 

tolerable  condition  are  fattened,  there  is  no  notice- 
able increase  in  the  amount  of  flesh,  but  principally 
large  quantities  of  body  fat  are  formed.  As  the 
proteins  in  the  food  do  not  take  part  in  the  con- 
version of  the  nitrogen-free  food  constituents  (fat-f- 
carbohydrates)  into  body  fat  (p.  79),  there  is  no 
reason  why  animals  during  fattening  should  be 
given  much  protein  matter.  It  might  be  con- 
cluded from  this  that  in  a  fattening  ration  no 
more  protein  was  necessary  than  in  a  maintenance 
ration,  a  view  which,  however,  is  not  correct.  The 
large  rations  which  are  given  during  fattening  cause 
a  heavy  drain  upon  the  glands  which  secrete  the 
protein-containing  digestive  juices.  If  only  0.6  lb. 
digestible  protein  per  1000  lbs.  live  weight  were 
given  to  animals  which  were  being  fattened,  a 
large  portion  of  the  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  in 
the  ration  would  not  be  digested.  For  the  proper 
utilisation  of  the  food,  not  more  than  8-10  parts 
of  digestible  nitrogen -free  material  ought  to 
be  given  with  each  part  of  digestible  protein, 
as  was  mentioned  on  page  39.  If  it  is  possible  to 
obtain  a  supply  of  cheap  food  rich  in  protein, 
the  nutritive  ratio  (p.  231)  may  with  advantage 
be  narrowed  down  to  as  low  as  1-4.  To  give  more 
nitrogenous  material  than  this  would,  for  the  reasons 
already  given  (p.  62),  be  a  mistake,  and  in  practice 
ought  never  to  be  done. 

In  fattening  grown  animals  there  is  thus  a  con- 


FATTENING   OF   GROWN   ANIMALS  257 

siderable  margin  left  in  the  quantity  of  digestible 
protein  which  may  be  fed.  If  the  animals  at 
the  beginning  of  the  fattening  period  are  in  moderate 
condition,  a  commencement  may  be  made  with  the 
wide  "  nutritive  "  or  "  albuminoid  ratio." 

It  is  different  though  when  lean,  worn-out  ani- 
mals are  put  aside  to  be  fattened,  and  it  is  then 
advisable  to  give  a  ration  richer  in  protein,  so  that 
the  fibres  of  the  flesh  develop  and  are  able  to  store 
up  large  quantities  of  fat.  For  2-4  weeks  the 
ration  should  be  moderately  rich  in  protein  (1  :  6), 
but  not  too  large,  whilst  afterwards  the  quantity 
of  food  may  be  increased  until  the  full  fattening 
ration  is  being  given,  the  amount  of  protein  being 
slowly  diminished.  A  large  number  of  investiga- 
tions have  proved  that  with  the  very  moderate 
quantity  of  protein  given  above  excellent  results 
can  be  obtained. 

With  regard  to  the  supply  of  fat  in  the  food,  it 
must  first  of  all  be  remembered  that  this  is  the 
most  concentrated  form  of  nitrogen-free  nutrients, 
and  that  with  cattle  it  yields  2-2  times  as  much  in 
body  fat  as  do  the  carbohydrates.  It  is,  then, 
advisable  where  intensive  fattening  is  being  carried 
out  to  increase  the  fat  as  much  as  possible.  When 
oils  in  quantities  of  about  1  lb.  are  given  per 
1000  lbs.  body  weight,  the  appetite  and  digestion 
of  ruminants  suffer  as  a  rule.  Also  when  foods  rich 
in  fat  are  fed,  the  same  disturbances  are  some- 
s 


258    SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

times  noticed  when  the  ration  contains  more  than 
ij-lf  lbs.  digestible  fat.  The  latter  quantity 
may  therefore  be  regarded  as  the  limit,  and  only 
exceptionally  should  as  much  as  i  lb.  fat  per 
iooo  lbs.  live  weight  be  given  to  ruminants.  Pigs 
are  able  to  take  more  than  this,  and  young  animals 
when  fed  on  milk  also  have  the  ability  to  consume 
large  quantities  of  fat — more  than  2  lbs. — without 
disturbance  to  health. 

By  means  of  various  investigations  (p.  76)  the 
proof  has  been  given  that  some  oils  and  lats  can 
be  partially  stored  up  as  body  fat,  and  so  alter  the 
properties  of  the  latter,  a  fact  which  possesses 
practical  importance.  The  body  fat  of  ruminants, 
which  arises  chiefly  from  the  carbohydrates,  pos- 
sesses a  hard,  tallowy  consistency  which  may  be 
much  improved  by  feeding  certain  oily  foods  if 
the  animal  is  intended  for  the  butcher.  An  experi- 
ment with  four  groups  of  fattening  lambs  which 
received  a  basal  ration  of  hay,  straw,  and  beet 
slices  showed  that  when  6- 16  kg.  maize  and  6-63  kg. 
of  sunflower-seed  cake  were  added  to  the  basal 
ration  an  excellent  quality  of  meat,  with  soft  fat, 
was  obtained,  whereas  the  addition  of  10-58  kg.  of 
crushed  peas  and  1-19  kg.  of  wheat  husks  gave  a 
very  poor  product,  the  fat  being  hard  and  crumbly. 
Where  the  addition  was  n  75  kg.  of  wheat  husks 
and  4-69  kg.  rape  cake  the  fat  was  moderately 
soft,  and  the  same  result  was  got  from  373  kg. 


FATTENING  OF   GROWN    ANIMALS   259 

earth-nut  cake   and   10-57  kg.  of   coarsely  ground 
barley. 

The  nature  of  the  bacon  is  also  influenced  by 
many  other  foods.  In  the  following  Table  the 
quality  of  the  product  obtained  when  the  foods  in 
question  were  given  alone  or  mixed  is  expressed 
with  the  help  of  figures ;  1  and  2  denote  a  good 
bacon,  3  somewhat  soft,  4  and  5  a  bad  sample,  too 
soft.  Fractions  of  the  whole  numbers  are  also 
used  to  give  more  exact  expression. 


I. 

II. 

Cereals    .... 

i-5 

Cereals  only    . 

.       1-2 

Mangels 

i-7 

^-l  cereals  and  ijr-f 

sun- 

Carrots    .... 

i-5 

flower  seeds 

.      2-2 

Turnips  .... 

i-6 

0— |  cereals  and  i-| 

sun- 

Cereals  (rye  and  barley) 

i-3 

flower-seed  cake 

.     34 

Wheat  bran     . 

2-8 

§  cereals  1  palm-nut  cake     i-o 

Barley     .... 

1-4 

3                55            S                 55 

1-2 

Maize      .... 

2.7 

III. 

Cereals  only 

.     1-4 

Maize  up  to  60  kg.  body 

weight,  afterwards  barley 

.     i-6 

55               55                /O      )5 

55                  55               55 

.       2-0 

SO 

■7.  i 

55                55                 OU       55 

J>                                    )>                            )5 

'    J 

Maize  only 

•     27 

According  to  these  experiments,  and  also  to 
practical  experience,  it  is  known  that  both  pigs 
and  ruminants  have  harder  bacon,  or  fat,  when 
grains  rich  in  carbohydrates  and  poor  in  oil  (rye, 
barley,  peas,  beans,  lentils)  are  given.  Also,  too, 
with  potatoes  and  mangels  and  amongst  the  oil 
cakes,  palm-nut  and  cocoa-nut.  A  soft,  in  some 
cases  oily,  fat  is  obtained  from  sunflower-seed  cake, 


260    SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

linseed  cake,  rape  cake,  rice,  peas,  maize,  wheat 
bran,  oats,  and  from  fish  or  meat  feeding  meals 
rich  in  fat.  For  cattle,  an  improvement  in  quality 
of  the  meat  is  obtained  by  giving  those  foods  which 
tend  to  soften  the  fat,  whilst  for  pigs  the  opposite 
is  necessaty. 

The  temperature  of  the  surroundings  has  also  a 
powerful  influence  upon  the  nature  of  the  body  fat. 
Wild  animals  exposed  to  much  cold  have  a  fat 
which  is  more  oily  than  that  of  tame  animals, 
whose  fat  does  not  melt  at  such  a  low  temperature. 
This  was  well  shown  in  the  case  of  three  young  pigs 
of  the  same  breed,  one  of  which  was  put  in  a  place 
the  temperature  of  which  was  30-350  C,  the  second 
and  third  were  kept  at  a  temperature  of  about 
freezing  point,  the  third  pig  being,  however,  sewn 
up  in  a  sheepskin — wool  inside.  The  three  ani- 
mals were  fed  in  an  exactly  similar  manner,  and 
after  two  months  it  was  found  that  the  second 
animal  had  a  much  softer  fat  than  had  the  other 
two  pigs.  A  warm  sty,  therefore,  assists  in  pro- 
ducing a  firmer  bacon. 

The  quantity  of  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  (ex- 
clusive of  fat)  which  are  to  be  given  will  depend 
principally  upon  whether  the  fattening  is  to  be  slow 
or  rapid.  It  should  not  be  forgotten  though  that 
very  large  supplies  of  food  are  not  utilised  so  well 
as  more  moderate  rations. 

In  a  series  of  experiments  with  sheep,  it  was 


FATTENING  OF  GROWN   ANIMALS  261 

found  that  when  the  rations  contained  16.5,  18.9, 
and  21 -3  kg.  digestible  nitrogen-free  substances, 
with  in  each  case  3-5  kg.  of  digestible  protein,  the 
daily  increase  in  weight  was  3-557,  3763,  and 
2789  kg.  respectively.  In  another  series  of  experi- 
ments, also  with  sheep,  in  which  5-2  kg.  digestible 
crude  protein  was  combined  with  18-1,  207  or 
23-3  kg.  of  nitrogen-free  extract  substances,  the 
gains  in  weight  were  4-062,  3*873,  and  3-695  kg. — 
all  being  calculated  per  1000  kg.  live  weight  per 
day.  Even  when,  along  with  large  quantities  of 
nitrogen-free  extract,  the  amount  of  crude  protein 
was  increased,  the  gain  in  weight  was  less  than  with 
moderate  rations. 

With  fattening  oxen  a  very  satisfactory  daily 
gain  of  2-35  kg.  was  obtained  when  only  17  kg. 
protein  and  io-6  kg.  digestible  non-nitrogenous 
material,  which  altogether  had  the  starch  equiva- 
lent of  10  kg.,  were  fed.  Overfeeding  should  there- 
fore be  avoided. 

(1)    The  fattening  of  grown  ruminants. 

In  the  fattening  of  full-grown  cattle  it  may  be 
taken  that,  exclusive  of  the  concentrated  food  and 
of  roots,  about  10-15  lbs.  of  coarse  fodder  per 
1000  lbs.  live  weight  should  be  given.  Such  a 
ration  would  contain  25-30  lbs.  of  dry  matter,  of 
which  the  digestible  constituents  would  be  at 
most  i-6  lbs.  protein,   0-7  lb.  fat,  and    16-0  lbs. 


262   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

nitrogen-free  extract  substances  and  crude  fibre, 
together  with  a  starch  equivalent  of  14-5  lbs. 
When  less  coarse  fodder  is  given,  the  ration  may 
be  decreased  to  a  starch  equivalent  of  12  lbs.  for 
cattle,  and  still  produce  a  daily  increase  of  2  lbs. 
per  1000  lbs.  of  the  weight  at  the  commencement 
of  the  fattening. 

There  is  a  very  large  choice  of  feeding-stuffs 
suitable  for  fattening  ruminants,  and  in  cases  where 
foods  are  equally  palatable  and  suitable,  the 
digestibility  and  percentage  of  water  which  they 
contain  ought  to  be  considered.  Everybody  knows 
that  with  cereal  straw,  chaff  and  similar  fodder,  no 
increase  of  weight  worth  mentioning  can  be  ob- 
tained. If  these  substances  are  included  in  large 
quantities  in  the  fattening  ration  there  is  not  room 
enough  in  the  limited  capacity  of  the  animal  for 
the  more  easily  digestible  and  profitable  foods. 
Where  intensive  fattening  is  being  carried  on  these 
less  valuable  food-stuffs  must  be  limited,  and  under 
some  circumstances  not  more  than  5-10  lbs.  of  the 
coarse  fodder  per  1000  lbs.  live  weight  need  be 
given  to  maintain  the  appetite  of  the  animal. 
Good  meadow  or  clover  hays,  which  otherwise  give 
an  excellent  product  when  the  animal  comes  into 
the  butcher's  hands,  are  seldom  used  as  the  chief 
fodder,  for  their  value  in  fattening  is  not  sufficiently 
high  where  large  quantities  are  given. 

It  is  otherwise  with  the  young  plants  from  good 


FATTENING  OF   GROWN    ANIMALS   263 

pastures,  the  nutritive  value  of  which,  it  has  been 
seen,  approaches  that  of  the  best  feeding-stuffs, 
and  in  particularly  favoured  districts  they  serve 
as  the  only  material  used  in  fattening.  Even  on 
the  best  pastures  it  is  advisable  to  give  the  animals 
some  hay  before  they  go  to  the  pasture,  particu- 
larly when  they  first  begin  to  go  out,  for  otherwise 
the  hasty  eating  of  the  palatable  green  food  to 
which  they  are  not  accustomed  easily  causes  dis- 
turbances of  the  digestive  functions.  The  amount 
of  fodder  to  be  got  from  the  pastures  and  its  nutri- 
tive value  will  determine  what  additions,  if  any, 
of  subsidiary  food  are  necessary.  As  a  rule,  it  is 
not  possible  to  finish  the  fattening  of  cattle  on  the 
pastures,  so  a  period  of  stall  feeding  usually  has 
to  follow.  Sheep,  too,  are  generally  only  partially 
fattened  on  the  pasture,  and  then  finished  under 
cover  on  a  full  ration.  Pasture  feeding,  as  a  rule, 
is  cheaper  than  stall  feeding,  even  when  special 
care  is  taken  to  watch  the  animals  and  to  systema- 
tically eat  off  the  grass,  for  the  labour  is  so  much 
less.  It  must  not  be  thought  though  that  the 
food  got  from  the  pasture  is  more  profitably  utilised 
than  that  given  in  the  stall.  The  increased  move- 
ments of  the  animals,  the  conditions  of  weather, 
etc.  all  result  in  a  larger  quantity  of  nutrients 
being  required  for  maintenance  than  when  the 
feeding  is  indoors  and  the  animals  are  practically 
at  rest.     On  the  other  hand,  in  the  open  the  appe- 


264    SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

tite  is  usually  greater,  and  larger  quantities  of 
food  are  eaten. 

Where  green  fodder  is  given  in  the  stall,  the  same 
degree  of  fattening  can  be  reached  as  with  dry  food, 
only  the  rations  must,  of  course,  be  supplemented 
by  other  foods  according  to  the  nutritive  value  of 
the  green  food.  Where  the  green  plants  (clover, 
lucerne,  vetches,  serradella,  etc.)  are  rich  in  protein 
the  addition  should  be  in  the  form  of  cereal  grains 
or  maize,  rice  meal,  dried  beet  slices,  or  other 
carbohydrate  or  fatty  foods,  whereas  in  the  opposite 
case  the  protein-content  can  be  raised  to  the  neces- 
sary degree  by  means  of  oil  cakes,  dried  brewers' 
grains,  ground  leguminous  seeds,  etc. 

In  most  cases  the  process  of  fattening  is  carried 
out  by  first  using  whatever  hay  or  straw  is  to  be 
obtained  from  the  farm,  as  well  as  the  cheaper  roots 
(mangels,  carrots,  turnips,  kohl-rabi).  Where  the 
price  of  potatoes,  beet  slices,  molasses,  lupines, 
brewers'  grains,  potato  pulp,  etc.  is  low  these 
should  also  be  chosen,  and  any  deficiency  made  up 
with  suitable  concentrated  foods.  Information  with 
regard  to  the  preparation  and  use  of  these  feeding- 
stuffs,  as  well  as  the  most  suitable  quantities  to 
give,  has  already  been  given  in  Part  II. 

When  choosing  a  food,  the  amount  of  water 
which  it  contains  must  also  be  taken  into  account. 
The  consequences  of  a  too  abundant  supply  of  water 
have  already  been  noticed  (p.  101).     Where  it  is 


FATTENING    OF   GROWN    ANIMALS  265 

necessary  to  feed  watery  foods,  such  as  beet  slices, 
distillery  waste,  brewers'  grains,  potato  pulp, 
mangel  tops,  etc.,  a  suitable  quantity  of  dry  food 
should  be  given  at  the  same  time.  Attention  must 
also  be  paid  to  the  palatableness  of  the  food,  and 
molasses  diluted  with  water  and  poured  over  food 
that  has  not  a  very  good  taste  assists  the  appetite 
considerably.  Common  salt  can  also  be  used  for 
the  same  purpose,  particularly  when  large  quanti- 
ties of  beet  slices,  potatoes,  potato  pulp,  or  other 
tasteless  foods  have  to  be  fed. 

Rapid  fattening  is  cheap  fattening.  The  correct- 
ness of  this  is  at  once  seen  when  it  is  remembered 
that  that  part  of  the  ration  which  serves  for  main- 
tenance has  no  influence  upon  production.  The 
longer,  therefore,  the  fattening  lasts,  so  much  more 
will  the  amount  of  food  be  that  has  to  be  used  for 
maintenance.  Where  there  is  no  reason  for  using 
a  lot  of  food  of  little  value,  a  better  ration  of  higher 
starch  equivalent  would  be  more  profitable  than  a 
more  restricted  one. 

Plentiful  bedding,  so  that  the  animal  can  lie 
down  in  comfort,  is  also  important,  for  exact 
experiments  have  shown  that  metabolism  is  almost 
a  third  greater  when  an  ox  is  standing  than  when 
he  is  lying  down.  The  temperature  of  the  stall 
should  rather  be  lower  when  fattening  is  being 
carried  on  than  when  feeding  for  other  purposes. 
Stock   receiving   large    fattening   rations    generate 


266    SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF    ANIMALS 

almost  twice  as  much  heat  as  they  do  on  a  main- 
tenance diet,  and  therefore  if  the  temperature  of 
the  stall  is  high  they  have  difficulty  in  getting  rid 
of  this  excess  of  heat ;  they  then  generally  eat 
badly  and  drink  too  much  water.  It  is  for  reasons 
of  this  nature  that  fattening  is  more  difficult  in 
summer  than  in  winter,  but  even  in  the  latter 
period  the  stall  should  not  be  allowed  to  sink  below 
10-150  C.  (50-600  F.),  except,  perhaps,  when  a  lot 
of  poor  food  of  low  starch  equivalent  has  to  be  fed, 
as,  for  example,  in  the  United  States,  where  often 
ripe  maize  plants  (straw  and  cobs)  are  used. 

The  shearing  of  fattening  animals  is  also  some- 
times of  advantage,  and  for  the  same  reasons  as 
those  mentioned  under  the  temperature  of  the 
stall.  As  many  investigations  have  shown,  shear- 
ing does  not  cause  a  direct  increase  of  flesh  or  of  fat, 
but  by  facilitating  the  loss  of  heat  from  the  body 
causes  the  appetite  to  be  maintained.  It  thus 
acts  as  a  preventative  of  overheating  of  the  body, 
which  easily  arises  through  rich  feeding  and  a  warm 
stall,  and  which  would  lead  to  the  intake  of  an 
insufficient  amount  of  food.  In  the  colder  periods 
of  the  year  shearing  is  only  of  advantage  when  very 
intensive  fattening  is  being  carried  on  in  a  place 
where  the  temperature  is  fairly  high.  When,  on 
the  contrary,  the  ration  is  only  a  medium  one  and 
the  stall  temperature  low,  there  is  no  advantage 
gained  by  this  operation. 


FATTENING   OF  GROWN    ANIMALS  267 

The  action  of  the  fattening  ration  makes  itself 
manifest  by  an  increase  in  live  weight,  which,  how- 
ever, is  not  maintained  at  the  same  level  from  the 
beginning  to  the  end  of  the  fattening  period,  but, 
as  a  rule,  diminishes  in  the  course  of  the  process. 
This  is  because  the  animals  need  a  larger  amount 
of  food  the  heavier  they  become.  Each  extra 
pound  of  weight  raises  the  quantity  of  food  re 
quired  for  the  maintenance  of  the  animal  in  its 
improved  condition,  and  this  amount  is  the  greater 
the  nearer  the  animal  approaches  the  finished 
condition.  Exact  experiments  carried  out  with  the 
help  of  a  respiration  apparatus  have  shown  that 
fat  animals  require  almost  twice  as  much  food  to 
maintain  100  lbs.  weight  gained  during  fattening, 
as  to  maintain  100  lbs.  of  a  lean  animal. 

For  this  reason  the  costs  of  production  are  raised 
very  considerably  towards  the  end  of  the  fattening 
period,  and  where  this  is  continued  for  a  long  time 
it  may  happen  that,  for  an  increase  in  live  weight 
of  1  lb.,  more  than  twice  as  much  food  must  be 
given  as  at  the  beginning  of  the  period.  As  many 
consumers  also  object  to  meat  which  is  overladen 
with  fat,  it  is  advisable  not  to  carry  the  fattening 
of  ruminants  too  far. 

From  what  has  been  said  above,  it  follows  that 
the  maintenance  requirements  per  1000  lbs.  live 
weight  of  fattened  animals  are  greater  than  for 
thin  animals.     Investigations  on  this  point  were 


268   SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

carried  out  first  of  all  with  twenty  fat  sheep  which 
weighed  together  1160-5  kg.  at  the  end  of  the 
fattening  time.  They  each  received  for  2\  months 
a  daily  ration  of  1-25-1-50  kg.  aftermath  hay,  and 
later  1-5  kg.  meadow  hay.  During  this  time  they 
lost  no  weight,  and  after  the  2j  months'  feeding 
with  hay  they  weighed  1166-5  kg. ;  nor  when  they 
were  killed  did  they  seem  to  have  lost  any  of 
their  fat.  Similar  results  were  got  when  two  fat 
oxen  were  fed  for  47  days  on  hay  alone.  More 
exact  investigations  with  the  respiration  chamber 
have  shown  that  fat  oxen  can  be  maintained  in 
their  fat  condition  when  for  each  1000  lbs.  live 
weight  only  1-1-5  lbs.  digestible  protein  and  a 
starch  equivalent  of  7-9  lbs.  are  given. 

If  fat  animals  have  to  be  kept  for  some  time 
before  they  can  be  sold,  the  fattening  ration  should 
be  very  gradually  broken  off  and  the  above  main- 
tenance ration  substituted.  Here,  as  also  during 
the  fattening  period,  it  is  of  great  advantage  to 
weigh  the  animals  regularly. 

(2)   The  fattening  of  grown  pigs. 

At  the  age  of  i-ij  years,  pigs  of  the  more  quickly 
growing  breeds  which  are  then  practically  full- 
grown  and  have  ceased  to  put  on  flesh,  require, 
as  do  full-grown  ruminants,  only  a  moderate  supply 
of  protein.  This  fact,  which  has  often  been  ob- 
served in  practice,  received  full  confirmation  from 


FATTENING    OF    GROWN   ANIMALS  269 

experiments  in  which  the  respiration  chamber  was 
used.  Pigs  of  14-18  months  when  fed  on  rice, 
which  is  very  deficient  in  protein  (albuminoid  ratio 
1 :  137),  gained  daily  48-0  g.  flesh  per  head,  and  when 
they  were  given  meat  meal  and  whey,  which  to- 
gether had  an  albuminoid  ratio  of  1:2-4,  they  only 
gained  45-1  g.  The  supply  of  protein  in  the  food 
can  also  here  be  limited  to  that  sufficient  to  ensure 
digestion  of  the  food  and  to  furnish  the  small 
increase  of  flesh  which  takes  place  during  fattening. 
Diminution  in  the  way  in  which  the  food  is  utilised 
by  pigs  is  not  observed  even  when  the  albuminoid 
ratio  is  as  wide  as  1  :  12  (p.  39),  so  that  if  animals 
in  moderate  condition  are  to  be  fattened  it  is 
sufficient  if  they  get  ten  parts  of  carbohydrates 
(including  fat)  to  one  part  of  protein.  When  the 
pigs  are  in  poor  condition  it  is  wise  to  increase  the 
amount  of  protein  by  25-30%  for  a  few  weeks  at 
the  beginning  of  the  fattening  period.  The  quanti- 
ties of  food  constituents  which  it  is  best  to  give  will 
be  mentioned  later.  The  amount  of  fat  in  the 
food  ought  to  be  kept  fairly  low  on  account  of  the 
undesirable  effect  which  foods  rich  in  fat  have  upon 
the  quality  of  the  bacon.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
non-nitrogenous  portion  of  the  ration  can  be  con- 
siderably greater  than  is  the  case  with  cattle  or 
sheep,  as  the  pig  has  greater  power  of  digestibility 
in  this  respect.  As  the  fattening  advances,  and  in 
3-4  months  it  can  be  completed,  it  is  good  practice 


270    SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

to  gradually  diminish  the  rations,  but  only  so 
lar  that  the  animals  are  always  completely 
satisfied. 

In  Table  III  of  the  Appendix  information  relative 
to  the  rations  can  be  found. 


CHAPTER   V 

THE   FEEDING   OF  WORKING   ANIMALS 

IF  a  comparison  is  made  between  the  kind  of 
nutrients  and  the  production  of  fat  or  energy 
in  the  domestic  animals  no  fundamental  difference 
is  to  be  found.  Just  as  the  body  fat  (p.  77)  is 
derived  principally  from  the  carbohydrates  of  the 
food,  so  it  is  with  the  muscular  energy  (p.  107). 
Fat  also  plays  a  considerable  part,  but  the  proteins 
have  only  a  very  limited  share  in  the  process;  in 
fact,  neither  in  the  production  of  fat  nor  of  energy 
from  nitrogen-free  substances  are  they  .  of  great 
importance.  From  this  it  follows  that  it  is  not 
accessary  under  ordinary  circumstances  to  give 
working  animals  very  large  quantities  of  protein. 
It  is  sufficient,  as  it  also  is  with  fattening  animals, 
to  let  the  supply  of  protein  be  such  that  the  com- 
plete digestion  of  the  food  is  assured  (p.  39),  and  for 
this  an  albuminoid  ratio  of  1  :  8-10  is  enough. 
Exceptions  to  this  are  such  animals  as  have  not 
yet  completed  their  growth  and  those  which  have 
to  perform  a  lot  of  work  in  a  short  space  of  time. 

271 


272     SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

Racing  and  driving  horses  which  have  to  work  at 
a  very  rapid  pace  require  large  quantities  of  oxygen, 
and  as  the  carrier  of  this  is  in  the  blood  it  is  essen- 
tial to  maintain  the  latter  at  a  certain  level,  and 
for  this  purpose  a  plentiful  amount  of  protein  in 
the  ration  is  needed. 

For  the  ordinary  work  of  draught  horses,  the 
albuminoid  ratio  above  is  ample ;  in  fact,  investiga- 
tions with  cab  horses  have  shown  that  the  animals 
can  be  preserved  in  excellent  condition  when  the 
ratio  is  as  low  as  i  :  21-28. 

Fat  can  be  given  in  the  food  of  working  animals 
(oxen  and  horses)  in  larger  quantities  than  is  the 
case  with  fattening  cattle,  for  the  muscular  exer- 
tion helps  to  maintain  the  appetite,  which  otherwise 
tends  to  diminish.  Further,  too,  the  fat  does  not 
throw  as  much  work  on  the  digestive  organs  as  does 
an  equivalent  quantity  of  carbohydrate  material. 
A  draught  ox  can  be  given  up  to  1  lb.  digestible 
fat  for  each  1000  lbs.  live  weight  without  any  in- 
convenience. 

The  quantity  of  carbohydrates  in  the  ration 
depends  generally  upon  the  work  which  the  animals 
have  to  perform  and  upon  the  food  value  of  the 
constituents  of  the  ration.  As  the  heat  generated 
in  the  body  cannot  be  transformed  into  work,  the 
digestible  nutrients  of  those  foods  from  which  much 
heat  arises  directly,  do  not  yield  as  much  energy  as 
the  "  full- value  "  nutrients  (pp.  57  and  91). 


FEEDING  OF   WORKING   ANIMALS     273 

(1)   The  feeding  of  draught  oxen. 

It  has  already  been  seen  (p.  109)  that  men,  dogs, 
and  horses  are  able  to  convert,  in  round  numbers, 
a  third  of  the  utilisable  energy  of  their  food  into 
work.  There  is  not  much  likelihood  of  error  if 
the  same  proportion  is  assumed  to  take  place  with 
the  ox.  If  the  daily  work  of  a  draught  ox  is  known, 
it  is  not  difficult  to  calculate  how  much  digestible 
protein  matter  and  starch  equivalent  are  required  for 
this  amount  of  work.  From  previous  considera- 
tions (p.  no)  it  may  be  taken  that  1  g.  starch  value 
is  able  to  perform  533  mkg.  work,  so  that  if  2,400,000 
mkg.,  which  is  considered  an  average  amount  of 
work  for  1000  kg.  live  weight,  be  taken  the  starch 
equivalent  would  have  to  be  4-50  kg.  To  this 
must  be  added  5-20  kg.  starch  equivalent  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  animal  (p.  245). 

The  ration  of  oxen  performing  medium  work  must 
therefore  contain  a  starch  equivalent  per  1000  lbs. 
live  weight  of  97  lbs.  and  1-4  lbs.  digestible  protein, 
the  latter  under  ordinary  circumstances  sufficing  for 
the  complete  digestion  of  the  food.  If  food-stuffs 
rich  in  protein  have  to  be  used,  then  double  the 
quantity  of  protein  can  be  given  without  any 
danger.  In  Table  III  of  the  Appendix  will  be 
found  further  details  relative  to  the  rations  for 
different  kinds  of  work.  With  regard  to  the  sort  of 
food  to  be  given,  it  must  first  of  all  be  remembered 


274    SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF    ANIMALS 

that  the  mass  of  food  inside  the  animal  is  a  weight 
which  must  be  carried  about  and  tends  to  diminish 
the  amount  of  work  which  can  be  done.  For  this 
reason  it  is  advisable  to  restrict  the  quantity  of 
coarse  fodder,  which  on  account  of  its  indigesti- 
bility  is  a  considerable  burden  to  the  animal.  A 
lot  of  coarse  fodder  also  requires  a  longer  time  for 
its  consumption  and  rumination,  and  so  shortens 
the  working  period.   . 

It  must  further  be  remembered  that  very  watery 
food  has  a  lowering  tendency  and  causes  sweating, 
so  that  in  general  dry  feeding  is  preferable  to  wet 
feeding,  and  when  there  is  a  shortage  of  green 
fodder,  mangels,  turnips,  etc.  these  should  prefer- 
ably be  given  to  the  milking  stock. 

Draught  oxen,  even  if  they  are  only  performing 
light  work,  cannot  be  kept  on  coarse  fodder  alone, 
although  it  may  be  of  the  best  quality,  and  this  in 
spite  of  the  large  capacity  which  these  animals  have 
for  bulky  food.  Some  addition  of  protein  food 
must  be  given  in  order  to  obtain  a  ration  correspond- 
ing to  the  standard.  Suitable  mixtures  can  be 
got  from  coarse  fodder  with  moderate  additions 
of  roots  ;  potatoes,  if  the  price  is  low,  are  to  be 
preferred  to  mangels.  Instead  of  such  roots, 
fresh  or  dried  beet  slices  can  be  used,  and  the 
deficiency  in  protein  made  up  by  the  addition  of 
oil  cakes,  refuse  from  distilleries  or  breweries,  ground 
cereal  grains  or  leguminous  seeds,  molasses,  etc. 


FEEDING  OF   WORKING  ANIMALS    275 

The  previous  descriptions  of  the  food-stuffs,  to- 
gether with  the  feeding  standards  given  in  the 
Appendix,  supply  all  the  details  necessary  for 
making  up  the  rations. 

During  work  the  animals  ought  to  have  short 
periods  of  rest  in  order  to  prevent  the  excessive 
fatigue  which  would  raise  the  metabolism  con- 
siderably (p.  111).  The  length  of  time  which  an 
ox  should  be  allowed  to  rest  at  midday  has  already 
been  mentioned  (p.  34),  and  it  should  be  a  rule  to 
give  a  longer  rest  in  the  hot  periods  of  the  year. 
This  is  then  particularly  necessary,  both  to  give 
time  to  overcome  fatigue  and  also  to  admit  the 
rise  of  body  heat,  which  follows  a  meal,  to  be 
dissipated.  The  best  plan  is  to  begin  work  earlier 
in  the  morning  in  summer  and  to  cease  somewhat 
later  in  the  evening  than  during  the  cooler  part  of 
the  year. 

(2)    The  feeding  of  horses. 

In  order  to  know  what  nourishment  to  give  to  a 
horse  which  is  performing  a  certain  amount  of 
work,  it  is  necessary  to  find  out  what  is  required 
for  maintenance.  Investigations  on  this  point 
have  been  carried  out  in  three  different  ways.  In 
one  series  of  experiments  omnibus  horses  were 
used,  and  one-third  of  the  working  ration  was  given 
to  animals  at  rest  in  the  stable. 

On    this    diet    the    animals    lost    weight ;     they 


276     SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF    ANIMALS 

weighed  on  an  average  545  kg.  each  at  the  beginning, 
and  after  30-48  days  the  weight  had  fallen  to 
518  kg.  After  this,  half  the  working  ration  was 
given,  and  the  average  weight  after  25-33  days 
rose  to  553  kg.  A  third  of  the  working  ration  was, 
therefore,  too  little,  whilst  a  half  was  too  much. 
Then  another  lot  of  horses  were  taken,  and  on  T\  of 
the  working  ration  an  almost  perfect  equilibrium 
was  established,  there  being  after  30-48  days  only 
an  average  gain  of  8  kg.  The  -fa  of  the  working 
ration  which  was  fed  consisted  per  head  per  day  of 
1250  g.  hay,  2500  g.  wheat  straw,  1250  g.  oats, 
1875  g.  maize,  625  g.  field  beans,  and  166  g.  wheat 
bran,  all  together  having  a  starch  equivalent  of 
3254  g.  per  500  kg.  live  weight. 

In  a  second  experiment,  with  cab  horses,  the 
weight  remained  stationary  (433  kg.  per  horse) 
when  the  animals  were  kept  for  about  two  months 
at  rest  in  the  stall  on  a  ration  composed  of  940  g. 
hay,  508  g.  straw,  1772  g.  oats,  380  g.  beans,  1308  g. 
maize,  and  260  g.  maize  cake,  together  with  a  starch 
equivalent  of  3364  g.  per  500  kg.  live  weight. 

In  a  third  series  of  experiments  with  meadow 
hay,  to  which  in  some  cases  straw  and  corn  were 
added,  the  maintenance  requirements  were  on  an 
average  3312  g.  starch  equivalent. 

The  mean  of  these  various  experiments,  then, 
shows  that  for  500  kg.  live  weight  horses  need  3-3  kg. 
starch    equivalent    for    maintenance,    so    that    an 


FEEDING  OF  WORKING  ANIMALS    277 

animal  of  that  weight  performing  daily  two  million 
metrekilograms  of  work  would  need  to  get  7-05  kg. 
starch  equivalent.  As  1  kg.  starch  equivalent  equals 
533  mkg.  work,  two  millions  mkg.  would  use 
375  kg.  starch  equivalent,  to  which  must  be  added 
3-3  kg.  for  maintenance  (see  above),  making  the 
total  7-05  kg.  The  following  figures  show  what 
is  the  daily  work  of  a  horse  working  eight  hours  a 
day  and  at  a  rate  of  4  km.  per  hour. 


Live  weight,  kg.  .         .      300 

400 

500 

600 

700 

Draught  energy,  kg.            45 

56 

67 

78 

89 

Daily  work  expressed  \ 
in  millions  of  mkg.   J     '44 

i-8o 

2-l6 

2-52 

2-88 

For  the  above  work  the  following  starch  equiva- 
lents in  kg.  are  necessary  : — 

For  the  work  .         .         2-70     3-38     4-05     4*73     5*40 
For  the  maintenance    1  0 

of  the  animal       .      J  2'35     2^     ^°    ^3    4-13 

5.05     6-22    7-35     8-46    9.53 

Light  horses  perform  slightly  more  work  in  pro- 
portion to  their  weight  than  do  heavy  ones,  for  a 
300  kg.  animal  will  do  for  an  average  day's  work 
4-80  million  mkg.  per  1000  kg.  live  weight,  whilst 
a  700  kg.  horse  will  only  do  4-11  million  mkg. 
With  the  food  it  is  the  opposite,  for  each  one  million 
mkg.  requires  a  starch  equivalent  of  3-51  in  the 
case  of  the  horse  weighing  300  kg.,  whilst  for  the 
700  kg.  horse  only  3-31  kg.  are  necessary.  It  is 
on  the  above  facts  that  the  feeding  standards  for 


278    SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

light,  medium,  and  heavy  work,  given  in  Table  III 
of  the  Appendix,  are  based,  and  these  standards, 
it  has  been  proved,  are  covered  by  the  food  given 
in  many  establishments  where  large  numbers  of 
horses  are  kept.  Naturally,  what  in  actual  prac- 
tice is  termed  medium  or  heavy  work  differs  very 
considerably.  As  a  rule,  those  rations  which  have 
been  found  to  give  good  results  are  continued, 
and  it  is  only,  for  example,  when  the  price  of  oats 
is  very  high,  or  when  other  reasons  make  it  impera- 
tive to  introduce  some  other  feeding-stuff  into  the 
ration,  that  a  recalculation  is  made.  In  such  cases 
Table  I  of  the  Appendix  gives  all  the  necessary 
data  for  the  calculation.  In  this  table  the  estima- 
tions of  the  starch  equivalents  are  calculated  for 
ruminants,  but  it  has  been  shown  that  they  can 
serve  equally  well  for  horses.  It  has  been  found 
by  means  of  eighteen  separate  experiments  with 
different  foods  how  much  work  the  starch  equiva- 
lent of  the  various  rations  was  able  to  perform,  and 
the  results  have  agreed  very  closely  with  the  theory. 
The  horses  in  these  tests  had  to  turn  a  braked 
capstan,  and  the  work  was  gradually  increased 
until  the  animal  began  to  lose  weight.  If  ioo  be 
taken  as  the  observed  maximum  of  work,  it  was 
found  that  the  figures  obtained  by  calculation 
from  the  starch  equivalents  in  the  several  cases 
varied  between  96-5  and  103-1,  the  average  of 
which  is  99-8.     It  is  thus  possible  to  use,   until 


FEEDING  OF  WORKING  ANIMALS    279 

something  better  is  discovered,  the  starch  equiva- 
lent as  a  measure  of  the  work  in  calculating  rations 
for  horses. 

With  regard  to  the  form  which  the  food  shall 
take  that  is  to  be  fed  to  working  horses,  it  must 
first  be  remembered  that  the  coarse  fodder  must  be 
decreased  the  greater  the  call  upon  the  animal  is. 
The  smaller  capacity  of  the  digestive  organs  of  a 
horse  compared  with  that  of  a  ruminant  indicates 
at  once  that  the  more  voluminous  foods — hay, 
straw,  green  fodder — must  be  cut  down  in  the  case 
of  the  horse.  The  burden  of  these  badly  digested 
materials,  the  disturbance  of  respiration  through 
too  large  a  volume  of  food,  and  the  relatively  small 
amount  of  nutritive  matter  which  they  contain,  is 
the  reason  why  usually  less  than  20  lbs.  coarse 
fodder  are  given  per  1000  lbs.  live  weight — generally, 
in  fact,  less  than  15  lbs.  and  sometimes  even  less 
than  10  lbs.  The  supply  of  coarse  fodder  can  only 
be  totally  suppressed  for  a  very  short  time,  for 
otherwise,  even  if  a  good  supply  of  oats  be  given, 
the  appetite  diminishes  and  the  digestive  organs 
become  upset.  The  coarse  fodders  most  useful  to 
give  to  horses  are  meadow  and  grass  hay,  lucerne, 
sainfoin  and  clover  hay,  also  the  straw  of  summer 
and  winter  cereals,  above  all  oat,  barley,  and 
wheat  straws.  In  some  large  stables  where  fodder 
has  to  be  bought,  the  practice  of  feeding  oat  or 
wheat   straw  instead   of   hay   has   been   followed 


280    SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

for  some  time,  for  the  number  of  cases  of  colic  was 
observed  to  be  greater  the  more  hay  was  given. 

The  difficulty  of  knowing  whether  the  whole  of 
the  hay  is  sound,  when  large  quantities  are 
bought,  may  just  as  well  have  been  the  cause  of 
the  sickness. 

In  Middle  and  Northern  Europe  and  in  North 
America  oats  are  the  chief  food  given  to  horses, 
whilst  in  more  southerly  countries  barley  and 
maize  take  the  first  place.  Oats,  without  doubt, 
are  the  most  suitable  of  the  grains,  then  barley 
and  finally  maize.  The  latter  has  come  much 
more  into  use  during  the  last  ten  years  amongst 
those  who  keep  large  numbers  of  horses.  Maize 
is  said  to  somewhat  diminish  the  vivacity  of  the 
animals  and  to  cause  them  to  sweat,  but  recent/ 
investigations  have  shown  that  the  substitution 
of  it  for  oats  did  not  impair  the  efficiency  of  military 
horses.  Cavalry  and  artillery  horses  which  were 
given  maize  as  the  only  corn  food  were  able  to  per- 
form the  same  work  as  those  on  oats  without  the 
least  falling  off.  Similarly  with  omnibus  horses, 
where  the  experiment  was  continued  for  a  long 
period  and  the  greater  part  of  the  oats  replaced  by 
maize,  there  was  nothing  found  to  the  disadvantage 
of  the  maize.  For  large  horse-owners  and  in  farm 
practice  it  would  almost  certainly  be  more  profitable 
to  substitute  maize  for  some,  if  not  all,  of  the  oats, 
when  the  price  of  maize  is  not  too  high.     As  is 


FEEDING  OF  WORKING  ANIMALS    281 

seen  from  the  tables  in  the  Appendix,  maize  has  a 
higher  starch  equivalent  than  oats. 

Barley  can  also  take  the  place  of  oats,  but  it  must 
be  remembered  that  this  grain  varies  a  good  deal  in 
composition,  and  so  care  should  be  taken  to  choose 
good  samples.  Small,  hard  grains  of  barley  easily 
pass  undigested  through  the  animal,  and  cannot 
completely  replace  an  equal  weight  of  oats. 

Rye  is  sometimes  also  used  as  food  for  horses  ; 
it  is  preferable  to  cook  it  and  to  give  1  part  to 
2-3  parts  of  oats. 

Wheat  seems  to  be  less  suitable  for  horses  ;  it 
is  sometimes  given  to  breeding  stallions,  but,  like 
buckwheat,  it  causes  irritation  of  the  skin,  and  this 
can  greatly  inconvenience  the  animal. 

Amongst  the  Leguminosae  field  beans  in  quantities 
of  1-2  lbs.  fitly  find  a  place  in  the  ration,  and  par- 
ticularly so  if  an  extra  effort  has  to  be  made,  or  if 
continuous  hard  work  is  being  done.  Oil  cakes — 
linseed,  palm-nut,  cocoa-nut,  sesame,  maize  germ 
— and  meals  made  from  these  are  given  in  quanti- 
ties of  1,  at  most  2  lbs.  per  day  per  horse.  Mo- 
lasses and  its  mixtures  with  brewers'  grains,  maize 
germ  cake,  palm-nut  meal,  chopped  straw,  etc.  are 
all  excellent  for  horses,  and  may  be  given  in  quanti- 
ties up  to  3  lbs.  per  day  to  horses,  which  are  thereby 
kept  in  better  condition  for  work  as  well  as  in 
improved  health.  Most  of  the  other  ordinary 
foods  are  only  used  in  a  supplementary  manner 


282   SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

for  the  horse  ;  particulars  as  to  these  have  already 
been  given  in  Part  II  of  this  book. 

With  working  animals,  and  particularly  with  the 
highly-strung  horse,  all  that  tends  to  load  the  diges- 
tive organs  ought  to  be  shut  out  from  the  diet,  and 
also  those  food-stuffs  which  make  the  animal  take 
more  water  than  it  would  under  normal  feeding 
conditions.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  food  is  of 
the  best,  and  anything  that  is  musty  or  has  been 
attacked  by  moulds  or  fungi  should  not  be  given. 
Any  food  either  that  contains  injurious  substances 
even  in  a  small  degree  ought  not  to  be  fed. 

Horses  ought  to  have  a  rest  of  2-2J-  hours  in 
which  to  eat  and  digest  their  food  in  peace,  and 
this  gives  them  a  chance  of  resting  before  the  work 
is  begun  again.  What  it  is  essential  to  know 
about  watering  has  already  been  mentioned  (p.  237). 


CHAPTER    VI 

THE   FEEDING   OF  GROWING   ANIMALS   FOR 
BREEDING   OR  FATTENING 

A  FULLY  grown  animal  is  practically  in  a  state 
of  permanence,  and  gives  out  exactly  as 
much  as  it  takes  in.  During  fattening,  in  spite  of 
the  most  liberal  feeding,  there  is  only  very  little, 
if  any,  protein  or  mineral  matter  added  to  the  body 
substance,  the  increase  being  almost  entirely  fat. 
With  a  growing  animal,  on  the  contrary,  when  it 
receives  sufficient  food  there  is  a  regular  gain  in  its 
nitrogenous  and  mineral  components.  There  is  no 
cessation  in  the  development  of  the  organs  of  grow- 
ing animals,  not  even  when  as  much  is  taken  in  as  is 
given  out,  for  in  such  a  case  some  of  the  organs 
would  grow  at  the  expense  of  the  others,  a  condi- 
tion which  naturally  could  only  be  maintained  for 
a  certain  time. 

When  the  rate  at  which  young  animals  lay  on 
flesh  and  mineral  substances  is  considered,  it  is 
easy  to  understand  how  some  have  thought  that 
the  maintenance  requirements  are  less  during 
growth  than  later,  and  that  with  young  cattle  the 

283 


284    SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF    ANIMALS 

food  has  greater  productive  value.  Investiga- 
tions carried  on  from  several  standpoints  have, 
however,  taught  that  the  metabolism  in  the  young 
body  is  at  least  as  much  and  perhaps  more  than 
when  growth  has  ceased,  but  that  the  protein  and 
mineral  substances  in  excess  of  maintenance  re- 
quirements can  be  utilised  to  a  much  greater  extent 
for  the  development  of  the  growing  organs.  The 
complete  investigations  of  the  daily  income  and 
output  of  a  2-3  weeks  old  sucking-calf  weighing 
50  kg.  gave  the  following  : — 


In  the  food  8093  p.  milk  7l'2& 
In  the  dungfi  iM  ■;• 
,,     ,,  urine     S370g 

„    „  breath -9455 

carbonic  mid      .      . 

Decomposed 

Stored  in  the  body 


6 


2  "2 


'3  "5 


63-5 
16-8 


t< 

237 
o'5 


78-5 
,5-8 


42-2 
•o 


42*2 


E- 

39** 
2*2 

IO"2 


26-8 


8- 

48-8 

•9 
1 1 -6 

257-6 

209*8 


R. 

62 

r6 

27-4 


33'o 


o  <t 


g- 
1 -9 

0*2 

5"° 


,38 


o*5 

•o 


>4"S 


The  daily  increase  was  thus  925  g.,  of  which 
379  g-  were  dry  matter  and  566  g.  water.  Only 
very  small  quantities  of  the  ingested  milk  passed 
into  the  faeces,  and  of  the  digested  proteins  72-6% 
were  stored  in  the  body,  and  only  27-4%  were 
decomposed.  Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  growing 
animal  possesses  an  extraordinary  power  of  in- 
corporating the  proteins  which  are  offered  to  it, 


FEEDING   OF   GROWING    ANIMALS     285 

and   this   it   only   loses  gradually.    As  with    the 
protein,  so  also  with  the  mineral  substances  which 

are  necessary  for  the  formation  of  the  import 
vital  organs.    In  the  above  case  the  sucking-calf 
retained  53%  of  the  total  ash  of  the  milk  which  it 
consumed. 

Of  the  phosphoric  acid  72-5%  pt  in  the 

body,  of  the  lime  as  much  as  97%,  and  of  the  other 
mineral  substances   (potash,   soda,   oxide  of  iron, 
magnesia)  20  40%,  of  which  chlorine  was  the  I 
only  4%.    Lime  and  phosphoric  acid  were,  there- 
fore, retained  to  a  much  larger  extent  than  the 
other  substances,  in  the  case  of  the  limr:  only  3% 
ing   into   the   excreta     According   to   this   H 
almost  seems  as  though  the  milk  of  highly  bred 
cattle  was  too  poor  in  this  material,  which  i 
important  for  the  making  of  bone.    The  eag 
with  which  calves  eat  mortar,  chalk,  or  other  lime- 
COntaining    substances,  points    to    the    milk    being 
deficient    in    this    respect    and    I  bility    of 

giving  some  precipitated  chalk  to  animals  of  this 
kind. 

With  regard  to  the  food  metabolism  after 
weaning,  investigations  with  lambs  (Southdown — 
Merino  cross)   from  the  5-24  monl 

ilts  noted  below.  The  ration  which  was  given 
kept  the  animals  in  good  condition  and  they  de- 
veloped satisfactorily,  digesting  the  following  quan- 
tities per  head  per  day  : — 


286     SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 


Live 

weight. 
g- 

23 

Di< 

jested  material. 

Age. 

5-6 

Protein, 
g- 

79 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 
g. 

376 

Fat. 

g. 

16 

7-9 

30 

86 

427 

17 

10-12 

35 

82 

429 

19 

13-15 

39 

81 

445 

21 

16-24 

47 

73 

492 

24 

The  storage  of  mineral  matter  per  day  and  per 
head  was  : — 


Age, 
m jnth. 

5-6 

Live 

weight. 
kg. 

23 

Potash. 

g- 
2-04 

Soda, 
g. 

0-84 

Li  ire. 
g- 

i-56 

Magnesia 
g. 

0-12 

Phosphoric 
acid. 

g- 
1-09 

7-9 

30 

2-89 

1-05 

2-00 

0-32 

1-65 

[0-12 

35 

3*05 

o-8i 

i-8i 

0-38 

2-50 

£3-15 

47 

2-65 

072 

2-07 

o-35 

3-14 

Potash,  soda,  lime,  and  magnesia,  according  to 
the  above,  are  retained  in  about  the  same  quanti- 
ties at  the  various  ages,  whereas  the  phosphoric 
acid  is  held  back  in  the  body  in  increasing  quanti- 
ties. 

Owing  to  the  demand  of  growing  animals  for 
mineral  matter  this  point  should  have  special 
attention  in  feeding,  for  a  lack  of  these  substances, 
particularly  of  lime  and  phosphoric  acid,  brings 
serious  results  (p.  96).  It  must  further  be  remem- 
bered that  the  animals  are  not  in  a  position  to  make 
use  of  all  the  mineral  matter  in  the  food.     From 


FEEDING  OF   GROWING  ANIMALS     287 

two  investigations  with  calves  of  5-6  months  of  age, 
it  was  found  in  one  case  that  only  42  %  of  the  lime 
of  the  food  was  utilised,  and  of  the  phosphoric 
only  46% ;  in  the  second  case,  51-54%  of  the  lime 
and  56-65%  of  the  phosphoric  acid.  The  two 
last  mentioned  numbers  may  be  taken  as  the 
maximum,  for  in  a  further  series  of  experiments  in 
which  precipitated  phosphate  of  lirne  was  added 
to  the  food  the  animals  did  retain  a  little  lime  and 
phosphoric  acid  in  their  bodies,  but  it  should  be 
remarked  that  the  food  itself  was  deficient  in  these 
two  substances. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  may  be  taken  that 
animals  should  have  in  their  ordinary  food  about 
2-3  times  as  much  lime  and  phosphoric  acid  as  they 
store  in  their  bodies.  Milk,  however,  is  utilised 
in  a  higher  degree,  as  has  already  been  noticed. 

In  the  rearing  of  young  stock  the  direction  which 
the  animals  will  take  later  ought  not  to  be  over- 
looked. If  they  are  to  be  fattened,  then,  even 
before  their  birth  they  are  helped  by  giving  the 
mother  a  liberal  diet,  and  afterwards  they  should 
also  be  treated  well  in  the  matter  of  food. 

Male  animals  intended  for  breeding  should  also 
get  a  more  liberal  diet,  without  being  allowed  to 
grow  too  fat,  than  those  animals  intended  for  the 
production  of  wool  or  meat  or  for^  draught  purposes. 
The  first  principle  should  be  not  to  hinder  the 
development  of  the  animals  by  a  lack  of  food,  for 


288    SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

what  is  lost  in  the  beginning  can  never  be 
regained. 

Owing  to  the  sensitiveness  of  young  domestic 
animals,  every  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  any 
injurious  influences.  The  food  given  whilst  the 
animal  is  getting  set,  and  also  afterwards,  ought  to 
be  of  the  best  quality.  Untried  feeding-stuffs,  or 
artificial  ones  which  are  certain  to  be  offered,  ought 
not  to  be  tried.  Even  in  the  preparation  of  the  food 
for  young  stock  it  is  best  to  remain  by  the  usual 
practice  and  to  divide  the  ration  into  several 
meals  (p.  235).  It  is  far  better  to  give  2-3  more 
meals  than  to  force  the  animal  to  overeat  itself 
through  getting  food  too  seldom.  All  that  has  been 
said  regarding  the  care  and  treatment  of  the  animals 
applies  even  more  to  young  stock. 

The  stall  should  be  well  ventilated,  dry,  light, 
and  clean,  and  in  winter  the  temperature  ought  to 
be  kept  about  15-180  C.  (60-650  F.),  and  in  summer 
there  should  be  some  provision  for  moderating 
the  heat.  Draughts,  cold,  and  damp  are  often  the 
only  causes  of  failure. 

A  regulated  amount  of  exercise  in  the  open  air  is 
of  the  greatest  benefit  during  development,  for  it  is 
only  when  the  limbs  are  used  that  the  muscles  and 
bones  mature  satisfactorily.  Movement  in  the 
open  air,  best  of  all  a  long  soj  ourn  at  grass,  prevents 
"the  too  early  formation  of  fat  and  ensures  a  tough, 
strong  constitution.     The  resistance  to  disease  is 


FEEDING  OF  GROWING  ANIMALS     289 

also  strengthened  in  this  way,  and  other  properties 
which  make  the  animal  valuable  for  the  purposes 
for  which  it  is  being  reared  are  fostered.  If  a 
suitable  pasture  is  not  to  be  had,  then  shift  must 
be  made  with  any  place  that  will  serve  as  a  sort 
of  play-ground. 

(1)    The  feeding  of  calves. 

At  first  it  will  be  enough  to  let  the  calves  have 
the  colostrum  (p.  219)  from  the  mother,  which 
causes  the  removal  of  the  pitch-like  contents  of  the 
intestines.  After  this  whole  milk  is  the  chief  food, 
and  if  the  calves  are  allowed  to  suck,  the  udder  is 
seldom  completely  emptied;  there  remains  a  por- 
tion of  the  milk  which  many  cows  obstinately  hold 
back,  and  as  they  are  not  then  milked  dry  the 
yield  diminishes.  If  the  calves  as  soon  as  possible 
after  birth  are  fed  by  hand  the  above  disadvantage 
is  avoided,  and  there  is  also  the  advantage  of  being 
able  to  measure  as  much  milk  as  is  needed  to  each 
calf,  and  also  avoid  the  troubles  of  weaning. 
Scrupulous  cleanliness  of  the  drinking  vessels, 
careful  measurement  of  the  quantity  of  milk,  and 
punctual  feeding  are  absolute  necessities  if  success 
is  to  follow. 

The  quantity  of  milk  to  be  fed  depends  upon  the 
body  weight  and  the  purpose  for  which  the  calves 
are  intended.  If  they  are  later  to  be  used  for  milk 
production   or  for  draught  purposes   they  should 


2qo    SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

get  daily  \- J-  of  their  live  weight  in  whole  milk, 
and  the  purely-milk  period  should  be  limited  to 
four  or  at  the  least  three  weeks.  Calves  which  will 
later  be  fattened  or  are  being  kept  for  breeding 
should  be  given  rather  more  milk — J- J-  their  live 
weight,  and  should  not  be  weaned  for  six  weeks. 

Warm  fresh  milk  should  always  be  used,  for  when 
cold  it  is  apt  to  cause  scouring.  In  order  to  escape 
tuberculosis  boiled  milk  has  often  been  used,  but 
it  is  said  that  the  animals  reared  with  this  do  not 
do  as  well  as  those  on  raw  milk.  Experiments  on 
this  point  have,  however,  shown  that  hardly  any 
difference  exists,  for  the  quantities  found  to  give 
i  kg.  live  weight  increase  were  10-82  litres  of  boiled 
milk,  10-45  htres  boiled  milk  and  salt  (2  g.  per  litre), 
and  1 1  -ii  litres  of  raw  milk.  With  properly 
measured  milk  supply  and  good  attention  to  the 
calves  10  litres  (2J  gals.)  of  milk  give  on  an  average 
1  kg.  (2-2  lbs.)  increase  of  live  weight. 

The  weaning  of  calves  from  a  milk  diet  must  be 
done  very  gradually,  the  whole  milk  being  re- 
placed by  equal  quantities  of  separated  or  skimmed 
milk,  which  is  best  boiled  and  given  in  a  lukewarm 
state.  Not  more  than  %  litre  of  whole  milk  should 
be  replaced  daily.  As  in  this  way  a  considerable 
quantity  of  fat  is  withdrawn  from  the  animals,  it 
must  be  replaced,  and  this  is  best  done  by  the 
addition  of  linseed,  25-30  g.  (1  oz.)  to  \  litre  (1  pint) 
skim  milk.     Oatmeal  and  later  linseed  cake,  as  well 


FEEDING  OF  GROWING  ANIMALS     291 

as  cocoa-nut,  earth-nut,  and  palm-nut  cakes,  may  be 
given,  also  barley  and  pea  meals,  malt  coombs,  and 
small  quantities  of  bran,  whey,  etc.  The  lack  of 
fat  can  also  be  made  good  by  some  suitable  oil 
(20  g.  earth-nut  oil  per  litre)  which  should  be 
beaten  with  the  hot  separated  milk  by  means  of  a 
whisk  until  no  drops  of  oil  are  to  be  seen. 

An  excellent  substitute  for  whole  milk  is  found 
in  Liebig's  recipe  (p.  145),  which  is  also  suitable  for 
those  calves  that  cannot  digest  the  mother's  milk. 
Good  results  have  been  got  from  the  addition  of 
saccharified  starch  to  the  skim  milk.  If  commer- 
cial extract  of  malt  is  used  for  the  saccharification 
the  following  quantities  have  been  found  to  give 
a  suitable  preparation  :  500  g.  (18  oz.)  potato  starch 
stirred  with  \  litre  (1  pint)  cold  water,  and  then 
3£  litres  (6  pints)  almost  boiling  water  gradually 
added.  This  gives  a  stiff  paste,  which  should  be 
allowed  to  cool  to  50-600  C.  (125-1400  F.),  and  then 
50  g.  (2  oz.)  malt  extract  stirred  in  ;  after  standing 
half  hour  the  drink  is  ready.  Finely  ground  malt 
(about  2  oz.)  can  naturally  be  used  instead  of  the 
extract,  only  then  the  liquid  ought  to  be  drawn  off 
through  a  sieve  before  being  fed  to  young  calves. 
Instead  of  starch  or  flour  it  is  possible  to  use  wheat 
or  rye  feeding  meals  with  good  results.  The  use 
of  such  saccharified  foods  with  skim  milk  in  place  of 
whole  milk  can  be  begun  when  the  calves  are  foui 
weeks  old,  and  the  14-16  pints  whole  milk  replaced 


292    SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

by  10  pints  whole  milk  and  5  pints  of  the  liquid  just 
mentioned.  In  the  fifth  week  the  whole  milk 
should  be  reduced  to  5  pints,  and  to  it  should  be 
added  10  pints  skim  milk  and  5  pints  of  the  sacchari- 
fied solution.  From  the  sixth  week  on  the  ration 
per  head  and  per  day  would  consist  of  16  pints  of 
skim  milk  and  5  pints  of  solution.  According  to 
observations  made  on  twenty-two  calves  aged  4-36 
days  for  a  period  of  half  a  year,  the  daily  increase 
of  weight  per  head  was  on  an  average  1-05  kg. 
when  potato  starch  and  extract  of  malt  were  given. 
The  favourable  effect  of  the  saccharified  solution 
depends  partly  upon  the  change  of  the  starch  into 
dextrine  and  maltose,  whereby  digestion  and  re- 
sorption is  facilitated,  and  partly  upon  the  muci- 
laginous nature  of  the  dextrine  which  acts  like 
linseed  or  linseed  cake  upon  the  digestive  organs. 

Newly  born  calves  have  only  a  simple  stomach, 
and  so  in  early  life  they  have  to  be  provided  with 
easily  digestible  nourishment.  The  formation  of 
the  fore  stomachs  only  begins  later,  and  the  process 
is  considerably  helped  if,  as  early  as  a  week  after 
birth,  a  small  but  gradually  increasing  quantity  of 
tender,  palatable  meadow  hay  is  given. 

If  the  time  for  weaning  has  come  the  milk  should 
be  withdrawn  a  pint  at  a  time  and  some  other 
warm  drink  substituted;  at  the  same  time,  more 
meadow  hay  should  be  given  up  to  3  or  4  lbs.  Along 
with  this,  about  the  end  of  the  third  month,  finely 


FEEDING  OF  GROWING  ANIMALS     293 

pulped  or  crushed  mangels  or  carrots  may  be 
given,  and  with  them  finely  chopped  straw,  crushed 
oats,  ground  barley  or  peas,  oil-cake  meal,  malt 
coombs.  At  the  proper  time  the  hay  may  be 
replaced  by  grass,  the  best  form  being  a  pasture 
with  plenty  of  sweet  grasses  ;  clover  should  be 
avoided  for  a  time. 

In  the  period  after  weaning  the  young  stock  must 
always  be  better  fed,  for  the  withdrawal  of  the 
milk  easily  puts  the  animals  back,  their  growth  at 
the  time  being  very  rapid.  From  the  4-6  months 
onward  the  calves  can  take  more  coarse  fodder 
and  mangels,  and  after  the  end  of  the  first  year  they 
do  best  on  the  same  kind  of  food  as  grown  cattle. 
As  the  skeleton  of  a  year-old  calf  contains  on  an 
average  7700  g.  lime  (17  lbs.)  and  7000  g.  (15J  lbs.) 
phosphoric  acid,  the  daily  addition  would  be  21  g. 
lime  and  19  g.  phosphoric  acid.  The  daily  ration 
must,  therefore,  contain  40-60  g.  (iJ-2  oz,)  of  each 
of  these  materials  to  fully  meet  the  demands. 

When  calves  are  being  fattened  only  sweet  milk 
is  used  as  a  rule,  for  if  other  foods  (hay  and  corn) 
are  given  the  meat  loses  its  taste  and  also  its  bright 
colour.  The  best  quality  of  meat  is  got  when  milk 
alone  is  used,  and  sometimes  eggs  are  beaten  up  in 
it.  As  a  partial  substitute  for  whole  milk  it  is 
usual  to  give  separated  milk,  or  a  mixture  of  this 
with  whey,  and  other  substances,  such  as  earth-nut 
oil,  saccharified  starch,  etc.,  to  make  up  the  deficiency 


294    SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

in  fat.  Good  results  have  also  been  obtained  with 
mixtures  of  i  oz.  rice  meal  and  i-ij  oz.  crushed 
linseed,  or  with  about  2  oz.  maize  meal  to  each 
quart  skim  milk.  Buckwheat  flour  is  said  to  have 
the  best  effect  on  the  quality  of  the  flesh.  All 
these  added  materials  are  best  borne  if  they  are 
boiled,  steamed,  or  saccharified  before  being  fed. 


(2)    The  feeding  of  lambs. 

The  weaning  of  lambs  begins,  as  a  rule,  3-4  weeks 
after  birth,  and  only  those  intended  for  breeding 
purposes  are  allowed  to  stay  longer  with  the  mother. 
In  order  to  accustom  the  lambs  to  take  solid  food 
they  are  separated  after  the  time  given  above  for 
some  6-8  weeks,  but  only  in  the  daytime.  Then 
by  gradually  reducing  the  opportunity  which  the 
animals  have  of  sucking  the  mother  they  are  com- 
pletely weaned.  During  the  time  of  separation 
good  tender  meadow  hay  should  be  given,  and 
later  also  crushed  oats  as  well  as  a  supply  of  good 
water.  In  this  way  it  is  possible  to  accomplish 
the  weaning  in  about  three  months,  from  which 
time  on  good  meadow  hay,  together  with  crushed 
oats,  coarsely  ground  peas,  mild  oil-cake  meals, 
etc.,  are  the  chief  food.  Lambs,  like  other  young 
stock,  do  best  when  they  are  gradually  accustomed 
to  being  on  the  pasture. 

The   daily  requirement  per  100  head   of  lambs 


FEEDING  OF  GROWING  ANIMALS     295 

up  to  completion  of  weaning  is  about  20  kg.  (44  lbs.) 
hay  and  6  kg.  (13  lbs.)  corn  for  the  lighter  breeds, 
and  about  30  kg.  (66  lbs.)  hay  and  7-5-10  kg.  (16- 
20  lbs.)  corn  for  the  heavier  breeds.  After  the 
withdrawal  of  the  mother's  milk  the  amount  re- 
quired up  to  the  end  of  the  first  year  is  about  50  kg. 
(i-i^-  cwt.)  hay  and  10-20  kg.  (22-44  lbs.)  corn. 

In  the  second  year  each  100  sheep  will  need  daily 
1-1^-  cwt.  hay  and  22-33  lbs.  corn,  together  with 
some  mangels  and  also  some  straw  to  pull.  Where 
the  animals  are  on  the  pasture  a  small  amount  of 
hay  and  corn  should  also  be  given. 

Watery  food,  of  whatever  kind,  which  contains 
more  liquid  than  the  sheep  naturally  take  (p.  101) 
is  not  readily  eaten  by  them,  and  if  constantly 
given  is  not  as  well  borne  as  with  other  species. 
Roots  and  watery  by-products,  as  also  gruels  and 
drinks,  can  only  be  used  as  subsidiary  food  in  the 
rearing  of  these  animals. 

On  account  of  their  rapid  growth  lambs  need  a 
more  concentrated  food  than  do  calves,  and  the 
feeding  should  be  according  to  the  purpose  for 
which  the  animals  are  intended.  Where  the  lambs 
are  to  be  fattened  and  killed  the  food  should  be 
richer  than  where  the  production  of  wool  is  the 
main  object.  Information  relative  to  the  size  of 
rations,  etc.  can  be  gathered  from  the  standards 
given  in  Table  III  of  the  Appendix. 

Lambs  about  4-5  months  old  are  found  to  take 


296   scientific  feeding  of  animals 

up  daily  2-5-3-8  g.  lime  and  2-0-4-1  g.  phosphoric 
acid  per  50  kg.  live  weight.  To  cover  this  need 
the  food  per  200  lbs.  live  weight  should  contain 
1  oz.  lime  and  1  oz.  phosphoric  acid  ;  these  quanti- 
ties are,  as  a  rule,  contained  in  the  ordinary 
ration  for  lambs. 

(3)    The  feeding  of  growing  pigs. 

With  regard  to  the  feeding  of  young  pigs  there 
is  not,  unfortunately,  any  investigation  which 
throws  light  upon  their  requirements,  and  so  the 
experience  of  practice  has  to  be  relied  upon.  Ex- 
perienced breeders  allow  those  pigs  which  are  in- 
tended for  breeding  purposes  to  suck  for  6-8  weeks, 
whereas  those  which  are  to  be  fattened  may  be 
limited  to  4  weeks.  Weaklings  may  be  allowed 
to  go  on  for  as  long  as  ten  weeks. 

When  only  2-3  weeks  old  the  young  pigs  begin 
to  gnaw  and  eat  other  food,  which  is  an  indication 
that  some  whole  barley,  wheat,  or  crushed  oats 
should  be  given.  They  should  also  have  from 
this  time  onward  some  charcoal,  coal,  earth,  or 
sand  given  to  them  daily. 

In  consequence  of  the  rapid  growth  of  the  young 
pigs  the  mother  is  soon  unable  to  feed  them 
sufficiently,  so  from  the  third  week  on  whole  cow's 
milk,  after  being  boiled  and  diluted  with  an  equal 
quantity  of  water,  is  given  in  a  lukewarm  state. 
As  the  composition  of  sow's  and  cow's  milk  differs, 


FEEDING  OF  GROWING  ANIMALS     297 

and  the  latter  tends  to  cause  scouring  in  young  pigs, 
it  should  be  slowly  introduced  into  the  diet.  The 
quantity  at  first  should  not  exceed  ^  litre  (l  pint) , 
and  it  may  be  gradually  raised  to  about  1  litre 
(if  pints),  but  not  more.  If  separated  milk  is  used, 
then  the  addition  of  some  saccharified  starch  food, 
as  described  previously  (pp.  145  and  291),  is  advis- 
able. The  milk  and  the  corn,  which  is  given  in 
increasing  quantities,  supply,  as  a  rule,  all  the 
phosphoric  acid  required,  but  there  is  often  a 
deficiency  of  lime  which  must  be  made  good  by  the 
addition  of  precipitated  chalk  to  the  food;  by 
degrees,  J-J  oz.  may  be  given. 

When  the  young  pigs  are  capable  of  taking  a 
sufficient  amount  of  food  they  should  be  accus- 
tomed as  quickly  as  possible  to  the  use  of  those 
foods  which  they  will  have  after  weaning,  and 
the  mother's  milk  gradually  withdrawn.  After 
weaning,  the  whole  milk  is  replaced  by  degrees  by 
skim  milk,  which  should  be  boiled  and  fed  in  a  luke- 
warm state,  but  not  necessarily  diluted.  If  the  pigs 
are  intended  for  breeding  purposes  they  may  be 
given  skim  milk  and  crushed  corn  (barley,  oats,  or 
wheat)  up  to  three  months  old,  or  ground  peas  and 
beans  instead  of  the  corn.  From  the  third  month 
onward  pulped  mangels,  boiled  or  steamed  potatoes, 
finely  ground  maize,  tender  green  fodder  and, 
above  all,  young  clover  may  be  introduced  into 
the  ration,  and  the  skim  milk  withdrawn  if  the 


298    SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

development  need  not  be  particularly  rapid  and 
perfect. 

The  young  boars  should  always  be  rather  better 
fed  than  the  young  breeding  sows,  and  from  the  com- 
mencement of  sexual  maturity,  which  usually  begins 
at  eight  months,  up  to  the  end  of  the  growing 
period  they  ought  to  have  a  food  richer  in  protein. 
This  can  be  made  up  of  green  fodder  or  mangels, 
and  oats  or  coarsely  ground  beans.  When  the 
growing  period  is  over  the  boars  should  be  kept 
in  good  condition,  but  not  allowed  to  grow  fat, 
and  a  daily  addition  of  I  lb.  coarsely  ground  rye  is 
sufficient  concentrated  food. 

The  young  females  intended  for  breeding  purposes 
should  be  fed  less  intensively  from  their  5-6  month, 
so  from  that  time  they  get  more  green  food  and 
roots  with  larger  quantities  of  chaff  and  less  ground 
corn.  These  animals  do  the  best  if  allowed  to  run 
out  to  grass,  and  as  that  is  one  of  the  cheapest 
ways  of  keeping  them  it  may  be  begun  at  the  fifth 
month.  The  most  valuable  pastures  are  those  with 
red  clover,  and  2 J  acres  of  this  ought  to  keep  25-40 
pigs  for  about  120  days.  Fallow  or  stubble  land, 
harvested  potato  or  mangel  fields,  and  waste 
land  can  also  be  used  if  the  pigs  get  some  suitable 
food  before  leaving  the  sty  and  on  their  return. 
Such  an  exercise  ground  though,  which  merely 
allows  the  animals  to  move  about  in  the  fresh  air, 
is  a  poor  substitute  for  pasture.     This  sparer  diet 


FEEDING  OF  GROWING  ANIMALS     299 

prevents  the  deposition  of  fat  and  should  be  con- 
tinued until  the  animals  are  sexually  mature. 
When  they  are  pregnant  they  should  get  increasing 
quantities  of  coarsely  ground  oats  and  barley. 
When  pregnancy  is  far  advanced  the  sows  may 
be  given  some  wheat  bran  and  linseed  cake,  and 
as  these  have  a  loosening  tendency  upon  the 
bowels  they  are  of  benefit.  At  this  stage  a  richer 
diet  is  necessary  not  only  to  secure  proper  develop- 
ment of  the  young,  but  because  at  the  time  of  the 
first  farrow  the  sows  are  not  fully  grown.  Similarly, 
during  the  suckling  period  extra  food  is  needed  to 
furnish  milk. 

Young  pigs  which  from  the  age  of  4-6  months 
are  being  prepared  for  the  butcher  are  fed  similarly 
to  those  intended  for  breeding  purposes,  and  the 
aim  should  be  to  get  well-developed  flesh  not  over- 
burdened with  fat.  Animals  destined  for  this 
purpose  may  be  given  a  ration  with  more  protein 
than  is  given  to  those  kept  for  breeding.  The 
feeding  of  pigs  on  which  fattening  only  commences 
when  they  are  fully  grown,  say  ij  years  old,  is 
different,  for  there  a  coarse,  solid  meat  with  a  firm 
layer  of  bacon  is  wanted.  In  the  rearing  of  these 
animals  they  should  be  given  from  the  time  of 
weaning  a  ration  richer  in  protein,  and  this  can 
be  done  by  feeding  along  with  separated  milk 
such  foods  as  roots,  rye  bran,  ground  maize.  After 
the  fifth  month  they  may  be  given  in  addition  other 


300    SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

materials,  such  as  whey,  wheat  bran,  beet  slices. 
Later,  potato  pulp  and  corn,  or  potato  slumps, 
feeding  meals,  green  maize  or  other  green  food 
and  chaff  may  be  given.  At  suitable  periods  of 
the  year  these  animals  also  find  the  best  and  cheap- 
est nourishment  on  the  pastures. 

Most  of  the  food-stuffs  which  are  used  for  rearing 
swine — milk,  cereal  grains  and,  above  all,  potatoes 
and  mangels — contain  only  a  small  quantity  of 
lime.  By  the  use  of  green  food,  leguminous  seeds, 
etc.  and  by  pasturing  this  scarcity  is  lessened  to 
some  extent,  but  still  it  is  often  noticeable  in  the 
malformation  and  disease  of  the  bones.  It  is, 
therefore,  advisable  to  let  the  pigs  have  some 
carbonate  of  lime  in  the  form  of  precipitated  chalk 
from  the  first  week  they  are  born.  The  quantity 
must  be  regulated  according  to  age  and  size,  and 
will  vary  from  5-12  g.  (J— \  oz.)  per  head  per  day. 
Phosphate  of  lime  or  its  surrogate  (p.  224)  will  then 
only  be  needed  when  the  ration  is  composed  chiefly 
of  those  foods  which  are  poor  in  phosphoric  acid 
(p.  97).  As  the  body  of  a  full-grown  pig  contains 
in  all  1-15%  lime  and  i- 10%  phosphoric  acid,  and  as 
after  a  year's  fattening  an  average  specimen  will 
have  gained  about  120  kg.,  the  total  increase  in 
this^time  will  have  been  1-35  kg.  lime  and  1-32  kg. 
phosphoric  acid,  which  is  a  daily  addition  of  3-8 
and  37  g.  respectively.  If  it  be  assumed,  as  is 
probable,  for  1  g.  of  these  materials  to  be  stored  in 


FEEDING  OF  GROWING  ANIMALS     301 

the  body  about  3  g.  must  be  present  in  the  food, 
then  the  daily  amount  required  is  in  round  numbers 
12  g.  (^  oz.)  each  of  lime  and  phosphoric  acid,  but 
on  a  milk  diet  less  than  half  this  quantity.  It  is 
thus  possible  to  estimate  whether  a  ration  contains 
sufficient  of  these  nutrients,  and  what  addition  of 
phosphate  of  lime  is  necessary  if  there  is  a  deficiency 
of  phosphoric  acid. 

As  regards  the  fattening  of  young  pigs,  a  large 
number  of  investigations  have  taught  that  the 
protein  in  the  ration  must  be  kept  at  a  fairly  high 
figure.  In  one  series  of  experiments  with  pigs  of 
the  Yorkshire  breed,  which  weighed  57-60  kg. 
(125-130  lbs.)  each,  the  daily  increase  of  weight 
over  a  period  of  90-95  days  was  :  with  maize, 
0-465  kg.  (1  lb.) ;  with  barley,  0-665  kg.  (i"5  lbs.) ; 
with  maize  and  separated  milk,  0-735  kg.  (i-6  lbs.) ; 
and  with  barley  and  separated  milk  0-745  kg. 
(1-64  lbs.).  The  total  increase  of  weight  with 
maize  alone  was  45-0  kg.  (99  lbs.),  and  with  barley 
and  separated  milk  70-5  kg.  (155  lbs.) — a  remarkable 
increase  which  must  be  ascribed  to  the  extra 
quantity  of  protein.  The  pigs,  it  is  true,  would 
become  fat  on  the  maize,  which  is  poor  in  protein, 
but  they  would  never  reach  the  perfect  develop- 
ment which  is  assured  by  a  more  nitrogenous  diet, 
and — what  is  very  important  from  the  financial 
side  of  the  question — they  require  considerably 
more  food  for  an  increase  of  100  lbs.  than  when 


302     SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

sufficient  protein  is  given.  This  holds  particu- 
larly for  quick-growing  breeds  which  begin  to  be 
fattened  at  an  average  weight  of  80-100  lbs.  The 
carbohydrates  must  also  be  kept  at  a  reasonably 
high  amount  for  young  fattening  pigs. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  fattening  period  the 
pigs  can  eat  very  large  quantities  of  food  daily, 
up  to  44  lbs.  dry  matter  per  1000  lbs.  live  weight, 
but  later  the  appetite  diminishes,  and  towards 
the  end  the  daily  amount  is  generally  not  more 
than  25-30  lbs.  All  these  circumstances  are  taken 
into  account  in  the  feeding  standards  in  the  Appen- 
dix (Table  III),  which  are  designed  for  rapid 
fattening  of  the  large,  rapidly  growing  breeds,  and 
assure  a  daily  increase  of  0-6-07  lb.  during  the 
whole  course  of  the  fattening. 

The  most  intensive  fattening  is  achieved  when 
the  animals  are  given  very  digestible  food  mixtures. 
The  higher  the  digestibility  of  the  whole  diet  the 
greater  is  the  amount  of  active  nutrients  that  can 
be  given  to  the  animals,  and  the  better  the  increase 
of  weight  proceeds.  Indigestible  feeding-stuffs, 
such  as  dried  grains,  old  green  fodder,  refuse  from 
cereals  containing  a  lot  of  chaff,  not  only  bring  less 
flesh-  and  fat-forming  material  into  the  body,  but 
also,  owing  to  the  room  taken  up  by  the  undigested 
matter,  prevent  larger  quantities  of  digestible 
nutrients  from  being  fed.  On  the  other  hand, 
ground  cereal  and  leguminous  seeds,  maize,  buck- 


FEEDING  OF  GROWING  ANIMALS     303 

wheat,  feeding  meals,  potatoes,  meat-  and  fish- 
meal,  waste  products  from  the  dairy  are  amongst 
the  most  suitable  feeding-stuffs.  Dried  beet  slices 
and  bran  are  digested  by  pigs  to  the  same  extent 
as  by  cattle,  but  they  do  not  have  the  same  value 
in  production  as  do  the  full-value  (p.  90)  nutrients. 
If  the  ration  is  composed  of  very  digestible  foods, 
then  some  bran,  chaff,  or  husky  barley  refuse  should 
be  given  at  the  same  time  so  as  to  assist  the  expul- 
sion of  the  faeces.  Very  large  quantities  of  pro- 
tein, much  in  excess  of  the  feeding  standards, 
favour  foot-halt. 

Experience  has  taught  that  many  feeding-stuffs 
have  an  influence  upon  the  quality  of  the  meat 
and  particularly  so  upon  the  bacon.  This  influence 
is  much  more  marked  in  the  colder  periods  of  the 
year,  as  has  already  been  mentioned  (p.  260).  The 
feeding-stuffs  which  have  the  greatest  effect  in 
this  direction  are  above  all  maize,  most  oily  seeds 
and  rich  oil-cake  meals,  rice  meal,  oily  fish  meal, 
distillery  waste,  brewers'  grains.  If  these  materials, 
however,  are  given  in  moderate  quantities,  at  the 
most  one-third  of  the  total  concentrated  food,  or 
if  they  are  replaced  during  the  last  third  of  the 
fattening  period  by  other  foods,  the  effect  is  greatly 
or  entirely  diminished.  The  same  advice  applies 
to  very  watery  roots,  fresh  beet  slices,  waste  pro- 
ducts from  the  manufacture  of  alcohol  or  starch, 
or  refuse  from  the  dairy.     None  of  these  should  be 


304    SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

given  in  large  quantities  during  the  last  four  or 
five  weeks  of  fattening,  or  even  earlier  than  that, 
for  the  tissues  ought  to  have  time  to  get  rid  of  the 
excess  of  water  before  the  animal  is  killed.  With 
those  foods  which  tend  to  give  a  soft  oily  bacon,  it 
is  advisable  to  feed  at  the  same  time  some  palm-nut 
or  cocoa-nut  cake  meal,  either  of  which  tends  to 
correct  the  softness.  When  feeding  with  maize 
satisfactory  results  have  been  got  from  a  mixture 
of  80  parts  maize  meal  and  20  parts  palm-nut  cake 
meal. 

Cotton-seed  meal  has  frequently  been  the  cause 
of  fatal  illness  to  pigs,  and  must  therefore  be  used 
with  the  greatest  possible  caution.  Roughly  ground 
lupines  also  act  poisonously  and  lead  to  cramp  and 
death,  but  when  they  have  been  freed  from  the 
bitter  principle,  which  must  be  thoroughly  done, 
they  are  a  good  fattening  food.  Meat  meal,  which 
is  very  suitable  as  an  addition  to  a  diet  deficient  in 
protein,  allows  of  the  consumption  of  large  quan- 
tities of  steamed  or  boiled  potatoes,  but  it  has  the 
disadvantage  of  easily  causing  diarrhcea,  and  there- 
fore should  only  be  given  to  young  animals  in 
quantities  of  50-100  g.  (2-4  oz.),  or  by  very  gradual 
increase  up  to  250  g.  (9  oz.). 

A  more  detailed  description  of  the  other  feeding- 
stuffs  is  to  be  found  in  the  second  part  of  this 
volume. 

The  preparation  of  food  for  pigs  is  often  carried 


FEEDING  OF  GROWING  ANIMALS     305 

too  far,  for  it  is  not  essential  that  everything  should 
be  converted  into  a  thin  gruel.  The  boiling  or 
steaming  should  be  restricted  to  potatoes,  hard 
grains,  and  chaff,  or  to  those  foods  which  contain 
injurious  spores  of  fungi,  etc.  Where  by-products 
from  the  distillery,  brewery,  or  starch  manufactory 
are  being  used,  and  they  are  not  quite  fresh,  they 
may  also  be  cooked  in  some  way,  and  the  same 
applies  to  milk  and  all  waste  material  from  the 
dairy.  Grain  should  be  given  either  coarsely  ground 
or  crushed,  whilst  feeding  meals  may  be  mixed 
with  the  coarser  parts  of  the  ration.  When  food 
is  made  into  a  gruel  it  should  not  be  too  thin ;  the 
best  consistency  is  that  of  a  thick  porridge,  and  it 
should  be  cooled  to  below  the  body  temperature. 
Special  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  feeding- 
troughs  and  vessels  clean. 

The  daily  ration  should  be  divided  into  three 
meals  for  young  pigs,  and  they  should  be  given 
regularly  and  punctually.  The  sty  should  be 
moderately  warm,  dry,  clean,  and  well  ventilated; 
an  excess  of  heat  destroys  the  appetite  and  can 
prove  as  dangerous  as  a  cold  sty. 


CHAPTER   VII 

THE   FEEDING  OF   MILCH   CATTLE 

(i)   The  formation  of  milk. 

WHEN  the  constituents  of  milk  are  considered, 
it  is  seen  that  amongst  them  are  some — as, 
for  instance,  casein  and  milk-sugar — which  are  not 
found  in  any  other  of  the  tissues  or  fluids  of  the 
body.  This  fact  proves  that  the  milk  is  not  already 
formed  in  the  juices  that  flow  to  the  udder,  but 
that  it  must  be  separated  in  the  milk  glands  and 
pass  from  them  to  the  cavities  of  the  udder.  Milk, 
therefore,  is  not  a  simple  excretory  product  like 
urine,  which  is  simply  filtered  from  the  blood  in  the 
kidneys,  but  it  is  a  substance  formed  from  the 
fluids  of  the  body  by  chemical  changes  in  the 
milk  glands.  The  material  which  is  brought  to 
the  mammary  gland  is  utilised  first  of  all  to  build 
up  certain  cells  which  on  completion  are  wholly 
or  partly  destroyed.  These  products  of  decom- 
position are  milk,  which  in  this  way  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  fluid  organ.  It  follows  that  milk  is 
not  directly  formed  from  the  blood  because  of  the 

306 


THE    FEEDING    OF    MILCH    CATTLE    307 

richness  of  the  ash  in  potash  and  its  poorness  in 
soda,  for  the  ash  of  blood,  on  the  contrary,  contains 
much  soda  and  only  a  little  potash. 

In  the  cow  the  mammary  gland,  which  is  covered 
with  fatty  tissue  and  folds  of  skin,  consists  of  two 
portions  which  are  separated  from  one  another  by 
a  wall  of  muscular  tissue  which  runs  parallel  to  the 
long  axis  of  the  body.  Each  of  these  halves 
possesses  a  grape-like  shape  and  is  composed  of  a 
great  number  of  smaller  or  larger  flaps,  which  are 
traversed  by  small  branching  ducts.  These  snfatf 
ducts  unite  to  form  wider  ones,  which  finally  open 
into  a  broad  passage  which  empties  into  the  milk 
cistern — a  large  hollow  space  lying  above  the  teats. 
If  the  small  ducts  above  mentioned  are  followed 
into  their  finest  capillaries  they  are  found  to  end 
in  tiny  sacs  or  alveoli,  which  compose  the  small 
flaps.  The  alveoli  are  furnished  with  a  delicate 
homogeneous  membrane  on  which  a  single  layer  of 
so-called  epithelial  cells  lies.  A  dense  network  of 
the  finest  blood  and  lymph  vessels  surrounds  the 
outer  walls  and  supplies  the  epithelial  cells,  from 
or  in  which  the  milk  arises,  with  the  necessary 
material.  Numerous  nerve  fibres  imbedded  along- 
side the  blood  capillaries  regulate  the  activity  of 
the  alveoli.  The  alveoli,  therefore,  are  that  portion 
of  the  mammary  gland  in  which  the  materials  form- 
ing the  milk  undergo  conversion.  Whether  the 
alveoli  are  partly  or  entirely  destroyed  and  then 


3o8    SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

grow  again,  or  whether  they  remain  intact,  has  not 
been  proved. 

Milk  is  therefore  a  product  of  the  mammary  gland, 
and  it  is  upon  the  development  and  productiveness 
of  this  organ  that  the  extent  to  which  the  quantity 
and  composition  of  the  milk  can  be  influenced  by 
other  factors — particularly  the  food — depends. 

(2)    The  influence  of  the  constitution  of  the  animal 
upon  the  formation  of  milk. 

(a)    Breed  and  individuality. 

The  development  of  the  mammary  gland,  like 
any  other  organ,  cannot  be  increased  separately  by 
any  kind  of  feeding,  but  is  to  a  certain  extent  heredi- 
tarily fixed.  Therefore  it  arises  that  between  the 
several  breeds  and  individuals  considerable  differ- 
ences in  the  quantity  and  composition  of  the  milk 
are  to  be  found.  The  natural  breeds  of  cattle  not 
bred  for  the  production  of  milk  only  give  some 
400-500  litres  (88-110  gals.)  of  milk  per  annum,  in 
which,  though,  the  percentage  of  solid  substances  is 
high.  The  cultivated  breeds  have,  however,  been 
gradually  raised  to  an  extraordinarily  high  pitch 
as  milk  producers.  Cows  which  annually  give  more 
than  5000  litres  (1100  gals.)  milk  with  more  than 
3  %  of  fat  are  nowadays  not  rare.  Definite  informa- 
tion regarding  the  milk  yields  of  the  various  breeds 
is  not  easy  to  give,  on  account  of  the  variety  of  con- 


THE    FEEDING    OF    MILCH    CATTLE    309 

ditions.  It  may  be  said,  though,  that  in  general  the 
Dutch,  Oldenburg,  East  Friesland,  etc.  cattle  give 
a  greater  quantity  of  milk  poorer  in  fat  and  solids 
than  such  breeds  as  the  Simmental,  Shorthorn, 
Jersey,  Guernsey,  Alderney,  etc. 

The  individual  animals  of  the  various  breeds  also 
behave  very  differently :  for  example,  eighteen  Dutch 
cows  which  had  been  bred  in  East  Prussia  were  kept 
under  observation  during  the  whole  period  of  lacta- 
tion, and  between  the  best  and  worst  yields  the 
following  differences  were  noticed  : — 

Total  milk  yield  .     .  2230  —  4702  kg.  .  Proportion,  100  :  202 

„     amount  of  fat.  74-4  — U9'3  »  •  »           IO°  :  201 

Percentage  of  solids  10-56— 12-86  %  .  „           100  :  122 

„   fat     .     2-63-  3.81   „  .  „           100  :  145 

In  addition  to  the  differences  which  are  observed 
between  cows,  there  are  also  the  variations  in  the 
daily  yield  which  are  often  observed  with  the  same 
cow,  and  which  in  some  cases  may  be  as  much  as 
3-4  kg.  milk,  as  well  as  differences  in  the  percentage 
of  fat.  The  same  cow  may  one  day  give  milk 
with  2-8%  of  fat,  and  the  next  day  3-9%  without 
any  explanation,  except  the  peculiarity  of  the 
animal,  being  possible. 

The  individual  relations  also  show  themselves  in 
the  alterations  which  a  change  of  food  makes  in 
the  quantity  and  contents  of  the  milk.  In  one  series 
of  experiments  with  fifteen  cows,  where  some  of  the 
carbohydrate  portion  of  the  ration  was  replaced  by 


310    SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

fat  (rye  feeding  meal  by  rice  feeding  meal)  without 
any  change  being  made  in  the  more  active  portions 
of  the  food,  it  was  found  that — 

One  cow  gave  1-85  kg.  more  milk  and  29  g.  more  fat 
Another    „       „     2-24  „      less       „      „    66  „  less     „ 
„  „        „    o-oi  „     more     „      „    21  „     „       „ 

»  j>        »     0-71   „         „  „       „       6  ,,     „       ,, 

Observations  of  this  kind,  which  anybody  can  make 
in  practice,  show  how  extraordinarily  changeable  is 
the  influence  of  individuality  upon  the  production 
of  milk.  They  teach  also  how  deceptive  are  the 
results  of  experiments  carried  out  upon  a  small 
number  of  animals. 

(b)  The  period  of  lactation. 

The  formation  of  milk,  which  begins  at  the  time 
of  calving,  does  not  always  remain  at  the  same 
level,  but  in  time  decreases  until,  usually  some 
time  before  the  next  calving,  no  more  milk  is  formed 
and  the  cow  is  dry.  Here  also  the  individuality  of 
the  animal  gives  very  variable  results.  With  many 
cows  the  yield  of  milk  increases  for  several  months 
after  calving,  remains  for  some  considerable  time 
at  the  highest  yield,  then  falls  quickly  or  slowly 
and  remains  for  a  period  at  that  level ;  but  here  again 
no  universally  applicable  rule  exists.  Generally 
in  the  course  of  lactation  the  percentage  quantity 
of  dry  matter  and  fat  increases,  but  to  this  also 
there  are  plenty  of  exceptions. 


THE    FEEDING    OF    MILCH    CATTLE    311 
(c)  The  age  of  the  cow. 

The  general  capacity  of  the  more  highly  developed 
animals  increases  during  the  first  period  of  life,  then 
remains  for  some  time  at  the  same  level  and  after- 
wards begins  to  diminish.  It  is  the  same  with  the 
milking  capacity  of  cows,  and  observations  have 
shown  that  the  yield  of  milk  increases  up  to  about 
the  time  of  the  fifth  or  sixth  calf,  whereas  the 
average  percentage  of  fat  in  the  milk  remains  con- 
stant up  to  that  time  and  for  several  years  longer. 
Great  differences  are  shown  though  in  the  behaviour 
of  individual  cows. 

(3)    The  influence  of  other  factors  on  the  formation  of 
milk. 

(a)    The  frequency  and  manner  of  milking. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  passage  of  the 
milk  from  the  alveoli  to  the  milk  cistern  is  easiest 
and  most  rapid  when  the  udder  is  empty.  When 
the  udder  is  more  or  less  filled  there  is  a  damming 
of  the  small  ducts  leading  from  the  alveoli,  and  the 
pressure  acting  upon  the  alveoli  hinders  the  separa- 
tion of  milk.  From  this  it  would  be  thought  that 
more  frequent  milking  would  increase  the  yield  of 
milk,  but  there  are  other  factors  to  be  considered. 
Many  circumstances  point  to  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  milk  only  being  formed  in  the  alveoli  under 
the  stimulus  of  milking.     It  has  been  computed 


312   SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF    ANIMALS 

by  measurement  of  the  ducts  that  the  whole  of 
these,  together  with  the  cavities  of  the  udder,  have 
a  capacity  not  greater  than  six  pints  of  milk, 
whereas  at  a  milking  often  more  than  twice  this 
quantity  is  got.  According  to  this  a  portion  of 
the  milk  must  certainly  only  leave  the  cells  of  the 
alveoli  during  milking. 

Be  that,  however,  as  it  may,  the  fact  remains 
that  the  time  between  successive  milkings  has  a  con- 
siderable influence  upon  the  milk  formation.  In 
an  experiment  where  the  cows  were  milked  after 
different  lengths  of  time,  it  was  found  that  the  milk 
obtained  per  minute  was  as  follows  : — 

With  intervals  of  12  hours  5-29  g.  milk  per  min. 


,, 

„         „    6 

M           6«83      „           „ 

>> 

.1    4 

„           8.58„           „ 

)> 

„    2 

>l           9'25      >>           „ 

,, 

,        ,,651 

riins.  10-15  ,,     ,,           , 

,, 

„  50 

„       1-4     »     » 

The  shorter,  then,  the  interval  between  the  times 
of  milking,  so  much  greater,  up  to  a  certain  point, 
was  the  quantity  of  milk  obtained.  Where  milking 
was  performed  each  hour  the  yield  fell  suddenly, 
from  which  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  otherwise 
favourable  stimulus  gave  rise  to  pain  if  repeated 
too  frequently.  In  general  the  extra  amount  of 
milk  which  can  be  got  by  frequent  milkings  is  very 
much    overestimated,    for    although    considerable 


THE    FEEDING    OF    MILCH    CATTLE    313 

differences  are  often  observed  with  shorter  intervals 
between  the  milkings,  they  are  often  not  applicable 
to  practice.  As  has  been  proved,  the  holding 
capacity  of  the  milk  cistern  accommodates  itself 
in  time  to  the  amount  of  milk  which  the  animal 
can  give,  and  so  there  ceases  to  be  any  considerable 
damming  of  the  milk.  From  practical  experience 
it  has  been  shown  that  milking  three  times  a  day 
only  gives  6-7%  more  milk  than  milking  twice. 
Whether  this  increase  in  the  amount  of  milk  will 
repay  the  cost  of  the  extra  milking,  carriage,  etc. 
must  be  answered  for  each  case  separately.  With 
freely  milking  cows  which  give  good  yields  and  where 
the  milk  can  be  sold  to  advantage,  it  may  be  possible 
to  milk  four  times  a  day  with  profit,  but  under 
ordinary  circumstances  twice,  or  at  most  three  times, 
is  usually  enough. 

Frequent  milking  has  an  influence  also  upon  the 
composition  of  the  milk  in  that  the  milk  is  richer 
the  shorter  the  time  that  has  elapsed  since  the 
previous  milking.  The  very  numerous  investiga- 
tions which  have  been  carried  out  on  morning, 
midday,  and  evening  milk  leave  no  doubt  on  this 
point.  When,  for  example,  a  large  herd  were 
milked  at  4  in  the  morning,  then  at  12.30  p.m.,  and 
in  the  evening  at  7  p.m.,  the  following  results 
were  obtained  : — 

The  morning  milk  .     .     11-51  %  dry  matter,  and  2-79%  fat 
„    midday       „     .     .     11*79  „  n  n    3'°S  »    » 

„    evening      „     .     .     12-44,,  „  „    3-76,,    » 


314    SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

If  the  milk  is  collected  in  different  lots,  it  is  found 
that  each  successive  portion  is  richer  in  solid  matter 
than  the  one  before.  In  one  experiment,  where 
six  portions  were  collected  separately  successive, 
they  contained  the  following  quantities  of  fat : 
170,  176,  2-10,  2-54,  3-14,  and  4-08%,  whilst  in 
the  mixed  milk  2-55%  fat  was  found.  Similar 
results  were  also  got  for  the  percentage  amount  of 
dry  matter.  As  cause  of  this  phenomenon,  it  is 
assumed  that,  owing  to  friction,  the  globules  of  fat 
in  the  milk  move  more  slowly  along  the  very 
narrow  ducts  leading  from  the  alveoli  than  do  the 
constituents  which  are  dissolved  in  the  fluid  of  the 
milk.  The  manner  of  milking  has  a  very  consider- 
able influence  upon  the  yield  of  milk,  as  is  well  known, 
so  that  a  clever  and  experienced  hand  is  of  much 
value  in  milking. 

(b)    Performance  of  work  by  cows. 

As  every  kind  of  work  done  by  an  animal  is 
associated  with  a  corresponding  utilisation  of 
material,  the  influence  of  work  on  the  milk  yield  of 
a  cow  will  depend  largely  upon  the  amount  of  food 
it  has  at  its  disposal.  If  the  ration  does  not  suffice 
for  the  full  supply  of  milk  as  well  as  for  the  work, 
then  under  all  circumstances  it  is  the  milk  yield 
that  will  suffer,  and  this  has  been  repeatedly 
proved.     When,  for  example,  a  cow  was  made  to 


THE    FEEDING    OF    MILCH    CATTLE     315 

turn  a  capstan  for  four  hours  in  the  morning  and 
again  for  the  same  time  in  the  afternoon,  the  milk 
decreased  in  quantity  by  4-5  kg.  as  a  result  of  the 
exertion.  The  milk  constituents  also  suffered, 
for  there  were  601  g.  less  dry  matter  given,  173  g. 
less  protein,  184  g.  less  fat,  251  g.  less  milk-sugar, 
and  30  g.  less  ash  or  mineral  matter.  Where  the 
same  cow  did  lighter  work  of  the  same  kind — less 
than  two  hours — the  effect  was  the  opposite,  for 
the  yield  of  milk  was  favourably  influenced,  there 
being  the  following  increases  in  the  constituents  : 
128  g.  dry  matter,  29  g.  protein,  44  g.  fat,  16-2  g. 
milk-sugar,  and  8  g.  ash,  whilst  the  quantity  of  the 
milk  was  greater  by  40  g.  Moderate  exercise  in 
the  open,  with  the  avoidance  of  unfavourable  in- 
fluences of  weather,  is,  as  has  often  been  shown,  of 
considerable  benefit  to  the  secretion  of  milk,  and 
therefore  ought  not  to  be  neglected.  A  daily  stay 
of  two  hours  in  the  fresh  air  has  a  very  beneficial 
effect  on  the  health  of  the  cows.  The  feeling  of 
comfort  and  well-being  has  a  greater  influence  upon 
the  production  of  milk  than  in  almost  any  other 
direction. 

A  moderate  amount  of  work  on  a  suitable  diet 
does  not,  therefore,  need  to  entail  any  diminution 
of  production.  It  is  true  that  the  quantity  of  milk 
may  be  reduced,  but  it  is  then  of  better  quality, 
so  that  generally  as  much  dry  matter  and  fat  are 
obtained  as  when  the  animal  is  at  rest  in  the  stall. 


316     SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

Where  the  work  is  fatiguing  the  milk  is  also  poorer 
in  water  and  richer  in  dry  matter,  particularly  in 
fat.  Often  under  these  conditions  the  quantity  of 
milk  sinks  so  low  that,  despite  the  increased  con- 
centration, there  is  a  considerable  loss  of  each  con- 
stituent of  the  dry  matter,  as  the  figures  previously 
noticed  will  show.  Hard  work  and  a  large  milk 
yield  cannot  be  combined,  but  the  use  of  the  cow 
for  light  work,  provided  the  ration  is  correspond- 
ingly improved,  can  be  carried  out  without  lessening 
the  quantity  of  milk  or  fat. 


(c)   Other  influences  :  treatment  and  care. 

The  great  extent  to  which  the  secretion  of  the 
milk  depends  upon  the  well-being  of  the  animals 
is  seen  from  an  experiment  in  which  ten  cows  were 
not  groomed  for  fourteen  days.  When  daily 
grooming  with  brush  and  currycomb  was  in  opera- 
tion the  total  milk  yield  was  2087  kg.,  but  when 
this  was  in  abeyance  only  2007  kg.  were  obtained. 
In  the  first  case  the  milk  contained  1177%  dry 
matter  and  2-99%  fat  and  in  the  second  11-44% 
dry  matter  and  3-14%  fat.  Everything  that 
upsets  the  cow — rough  handling,  insufficient  litter, 
a  cold  stall,  and  similar  disturbing  factors,  all  act 
unfavourably  upon  the  production  of  milk. 


THE    FEEDING   OF    MILCH    CATTLE    317 

(4)   Methods  for  ascertaining  the  effect  of  food  on  the 
secretion  of  milk. 

On  account  of  the  powerful  influence  which  the 
individuality  of  the  animal  exercises  upon  the  pro- 
duction of  the  milk  in  general  (p.  308),  and  the 
effect  which  change  of  food  also  has  (p.  309), 
special  care  has  to  be  taken  in  feeding  experiments 
to  eliminate  individual  influences  by  the  use  of  a 
large  number  of  animals.  Further,  the  frequent 
and  irregular  jumps  which  the  yield  of  milk  makes 
in  course  of  the  period  of  lactation  (p.  310)  must 
also  be  taken  into  account  and  be  guarded  against 
in  the  same  way,  viz.  by  taking  a  number  of  ex- 
perimental animals. 

If  the  quantity  and  composition  of  the  milk 
remain  constant  for  some  time  when  the  food  is 
unchanged,  it  would  not  be  difficult  to  estimate 
the  effect  of  different  kinds  and  quantities  of  food 
upon  the  milk  production.  The  natural  changes, 
though,  which  take  place  during  the  period  of 
lactation  require  that  in  each  investigation  these 
must  be  separately  ascertained.  To  do  this  there 
are  two  ways,  which  may  here  be  shortly  described : 

(a)  The  period  system. 

The  use  of  this  method  of  investigation  assumes 
that  the  natural  changes  in  the  milk  of  a  large 
number   of   cows   proceed   regularly,    and   that   if 


318     SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

three  periods  of  equal  length  are  taken,  and  the 
results  in  the  first  and  third  periods,  where  the  same 
food  is  given,  are  recorded,  the  second  period  during 
which  the  added  food  is  given  can  be  calculated. 

An  example  will  best  serve  to  make  this  clear 
Let  it  be  assumed  that  it  is  to  be  proved  whether 
the  addition  of  0-5  kg.  of  a  certain  feeding-stuff 
to  a  ration  causes  the  yield  of  milk  to  increase. 
For  the  investigation  twenty  healthy  cows  are 
chosen,  and  these  are  fed  in  the  first  and  third 
periods  with  the  original  ration,  and  in  each  case 
for  a  month.  If,  now,  the  daily  weighing  and  exam- 
ination of  the  milk  during  the  last  twenty  days  of 
each  period  show  that  in  the  first  period  15-38  kg. 
of  milk  with  3'05%=46o,  g.  fat  were  given  daily  by 
each  cow,  and  that  in  the  third  period  only  14-65  kg. 
milk  with  3*i2%=457  g.  fat  were  got  from  each 
cow,  the  natural  decrease  in  this  time  is  0-73  kg. 
milk  and  12  g.  fat.  As  between  the  middle  of  the 
first  and  the  middle  of  the  third  period  forty  days 
elapsed,  the  daily  decrease  is  18-25  g-  milk  and  0-30  g. 
fat.  The  middle  of  the  second  period  in  which 
the  added  food  is  given  is  seen  to  be  separated 
from  the  middle  of  the  first  and  third  periods  by 
twenty  days,  and  15-015  kg.  milk  with  463  g.  fat 
would,  therefore,  have  been  obtained  if  no  addi- 
tion had  been  made.  As,  however,  the  milk  was 
x5"35  kg.  and  the  fat  480  g.,  the  daily  increase  of 
production  due  to  the  addition  was  0-335  kg.  milk 


THE    FEEDING    OF    MILCH    CATTLE    319 

with  17  g.  fat.  Between  the  preliminary  and  final 
periods  there  are  sometimes  two,  three,  or  more 
periods  with  different  food-stuffs  interpolated,  and 
the  calculation  of  the  results  is  carried  out  in 
exactly  the  same  manner  as  in  the  above  example. 
It  is  best  before  and  after  each  period  with  a  differ- 
ent food  to  again  have  a  period  with  the  original 
ration  (basal  ration),  e.g.  in  periods  1,  3,  5,  7  to  use 
the  same  food,  and  in  periods  2,  4,  6  to  feed  the 
ration  which  is  to  be  compared  with  the  basal 
ration. 

A  factor  which  can  influence  the  result,  and  is  not 
always  to  be  avoided  in  this  kind  of  investigation, 
is  the  change  in  the  condition  of  the  animals  under 
the  influence  of  the  various  kinds  of  food.  If,  in 
the  above  example,  the  average  weight  of  the 
animals  underwent  much  alteration  in  the  second 
period,  this  change  would  make  itself  apparent  in 
the  yield  of  milk  in  the  third  period,  and  the  calcula- 
tion of  the  natural  decrease  in  the  flow  of  milk 
would  be  incorrect.  This  source  of  error  is  avoided 
by  the  adoption  of  the  next  method — 

(b)    The  group  system. 

In  its  main  features  this  kind  of  investigation 
has  already  been  mentioned  (p.  240).  In  each  of 
the  comparative  groups  ten  cows  are  placed,  and 
all  the  groups  are  then  given  the  same  food  in  order 


320     SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

to  find  out  whether  the  several  groups  give  the  same 
quantities  of  milk  of  equal  fat  content.  If  this  is 
not  the  case  the  animals  must  be  rearranged  or 
fresh  ones  introduced  until  perfect  agreement 
between  the  several  groups  is  attained. 

If,  for  example,  maize  and  coarsely  ground  corn 
are  to  be  compared  regarding  their  influence  upon 
milk  production,  then  both  these  feeding-stuffs 
must  be  given  in  the  basal  ration,  and  three  groups 
of  cows  are  necessary.  If  the  agreement  of  these 
groups  is  settled  the  real  experiment  begins,  and 
for  a  month  all  three  groups  are  given  the  basal 
ration.  Then  follows  another  period  of  thirty  days, 
during  which  the  three  groups  are  fed  differently, 
group  A  receiving  only  the  ground  corn  in  place  of 
the  maize,  group  C  maize  instead  of  the  corn  ration, 
and  group  B  the  maize-corn  ration  unchanged. 
In  the  third  period,  which  again  lasts  thirty  days, 
a  return  is  made  to  the  same  rations  which  were 
given  in  period  i.  In  an  investigation  of  this 
kind,  where  equal  quantities  of  maize  and  corn 
were  compared  with  one  another,  there  was  given, 
along  with  constant  quantities  of  other  feeding- 
stuffs,  the  following  quantities  per  head  per 
day  : — 

ist  Period.  2nd  Period.  3rd  Period. 

A,  B,  and  c.  a.  B.  c.  A,  B,  and  c. 

Corn     .         .     1-09  kg.    2-12  i-o6    —  1-03 

Maize  .         .     0-89  kg.      —     1-06  2-12         1-09 


THE    FEEDING    OF    MILCH    CATTLE    321 

The  daily  average  of  milk  per  head  in  the  last 
twenty  days  of  each  period  was  (in  kilograms)  : — 

Groups. 

A.  E.  C. 

1st  period  .  .  13-80  13-80  13-80 
2nd  or  maize  period  1175  11*85  l*"55 
3rd   period      .         .     10-65         10-65         I(>65 

The  analysis  of  the  milk  for  its  percentage  com- 
position showed  there  was  no  difference  at  any  time 
between  the  three  groups.  Naturally  in  these 
investigations,  whether  they  be  carried  out  accord- 
ing to  one  or  the  other  method,  the  other  properties 
of  the  milk  (smell,  taste,  churning  properties, 
nature  of  butter)  must  be  noticed,  and  the  live 
weight  of  the-  animal  regularly  recorded. 


(5)  The  effect  of  food  on  the  milk  production. 

(a)  General  considerations. 

As  milk  is  practically  only  changed  mammary 
gland  substance,  it  depends  largely  upon  the  develop- 
ment and  activity  of  this  gland  what  proportion  of 
the  nutrients  flowing  to  it  are  converted  into  milk. 
There  is,  however,  a  limit  to  the  development  of 
the  mammary  gland  as  there  is  to  all  other  organs, 
and  adaptation  and  heredity  determine  this :  The 
individuality  and  breed  of  the  animal  and  the  condi- 
tion of  the  mammary  gland,  as  influenced  by  the 

Y 


322     SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

period  of  lactation,  have  the  greatest  effect  upon  the 
milk  yield.  The  food,  along  with  other  factors,  plays 
a  less  important  part,  and  only  exerts  an  influence 
within  the  limits  of  the  capacity  of  the  mammary 
gland.  It  is  upon  the  food,  though,  that  the  efficiency 
of  the  gland  very  largely  depends. 

In  the  above  sentences  a  large  number  of  the 
relations  between  food  and  milk  production  find 
an  explanation.  The  mammary  gland  is  most 
active  shortly  after  the  birth  of  the  calf,  and  it  is 
here  that  the  greatest  latitude  is  left  for  the  action 
of  the  food.  Later,  when  the  gland  from  natural 
causes  loses  more  and  more  of  its  activity,  the  most 
liberal  feeding  cannot  maintain  the  milk  yield  at 
its  former  high  level.  Too  much  food  in  the  second 
half  of  the  lactation  period,  therefore,  causes  the 
deposition  of  fat,  and  when  the  mammary  gland  is 
fat  its  capacity  is  reduced. 

From  the  part  p^ed  by  the  mammary  gland 
in  the  process  of  milk  secretion,  it  is  easily  explained 
why  the  food,  as  will  be  seen  later,  has  such  a 
slight  influence  upon  the  composition  of  the  milk. 
The  animal  organs  one  and  all  have  a  very  constant 
composition;  the  lime  of  the  bones  cannot  be  re- 
placed by  the  other  similar  alkaline  earths  (barium 
or  strontium  oxides  and  magnesia),  nor  the  potash 
in  the  organism  by  the  very  analogous  soda.  Fur- 
ther, the  protein  substances  in  the  blood  cannot  be 
replaced  by  others  of  a  similar  kind,  nor  can  the 


THE   FEEDING   OF   MILCH    CATTLE    323 

components  of  the  mammary  gland  alter.  An 
organ  like  the  mammary  gland  which  is  always  of 
the  same  composition,  can,  therefore,  when  it 
liquefies,  only  yield  products  which  are  characterised 
by  great  similarity.  So  an  exp]anation  is  afforded 
of  why  the  proportion  which  the  constituents  of 
milk  bear  to  one  another  cannot  be  appreciably 
altered  by  the  food. 

(b)    The  effect  of  the  quantity  of  food  on  the  milk 
secretion. 

When  a  change  is  made  from  a  liberal  to  a  scanty 
diet  the  lacteal  gland,  as  a  rule,  does  not  immediately 
accommodate  itself  to  the  quantity  of  food,  but 
remains  for  a  shorter  or  longer  time  at  the  old  level. 
In  this  case  a  greater  or  less  portion  of  the  milk  is 
formed  from  body  substance  (flesh  and  fat),  and 
the  cow  may  lose  weight  to  the  extent  of  1  cwt.  or 
more  without  the  yield  of  milk  undergoing  any 
noticeable  diminution.  As  a  rule,  though,  there  is 
a  rapid  fall  in  the  quantity.  It  was  noticed,  for 
example,  that  a  cow  on  a  heavy  ration  (23  lbs.  clover 
hay,  38 J  lbs.  mangels,  and  8  lbs.  coarsely  ground 
barley,  per  1100  lbs.  live  weight)  gave  30J  lbs.  of 
milk  with  3-46%  fat;  whereas  after  being  fed  for  a 
month  on  a  poor  ration  (9  lbs.  clover  hay,  44  lbs. 
mangels,  n  lbs.  barley  straw)  the  animal  only  gave 
20  lbs.  of  milk  with  3-50%  fat.    A  second  cow  which 


324    SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

was  fed  in  the  same  way  gave  26  lbs.  of  milk  with 
3-92%  of  fat  on  the  first  ration,  but  on  the  poor  one 
only  i8|-  lbs.  of  milk  with  3-80%  fat.  Calculated 
upon  the  basis  of  milk  with  12%  dry  matter  and 
neglecting  the  natural  decrease  in  yield,  there  were 
10 J-  and  7!  lbs.  less  milk  respectively  on  the  poorer 
ration. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  change  is  made  from 
poor  food  to  richer  by  several  large  additions,  the 
yield  of  milk  increases  where  the  ration  is  rich  in 
protein  and  the  cows  are  good  milkers,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  extra  nutriment. 

In  an  experiment  with  crushed  beans  it  was 
found  that  the  addition  of  3  lbs.  gave  a  daily  in- 
crease of  2  lbs.  of  milk,  and  when  6}  lbs.  of  beans  were 
given  there  were  5J-  lbs.  more  milk;  with  another 
cow  the  increase  was  ij  and  2\  lbs.  respectively  for 
the  above  amounts  of  beans.  In  a  further  experi- 
ment with  malt  coombs,  where  2  and  4  lbs.  were 
added,  the  increase  in  milk  was  if  lbs.  and  2f  lbs. 
respectively,  and  in  another  case  -66  and  -8o  lb. 
respectively.  In  both  experiments  the  cows  which 
gave  the  highest  increase  were  those  which  without 
the  added  food  gave  the  most  milk  (26  lbs.  and  26^  lbs. 
daily),  the  cows  with  the  smaller  increase  for  the 
extra  food  only  giving  i6|-  lbs.  and  12  lbs.  The  more 
freely  milking  a  cow  then  is,  the  greater,  as  a  rule, 
is  the  increase  of  milk  which  will  follow  an  extra 
supply  of  food.     This  increase  has,  of  course,   a 


THE    FEEDING    OF    MILCH    CATTLE    325 

limit,  and  it  is  shown  that  from  a  certain  stage  the 
quantity  of  food  required  to  produce  a  given  in- 
crease of  milk  must  be  more  and  more,  until  finally 
a  point  is  reached  where,  in  spite  of  large  additions 
to  the  ration,  no  extra  milk  is  obtained.  If  the 
milk  yield  be  raised  by  the  use  of  more  food,  it  is 
the  last  quart  that  requires  the  most  nutriment 
for  its  production.  How  far  the  yield  of  milk  can 
be  raised  cannot  be  stated  beforehand,  it  can  only 
be  found  by  direct  observation. 

(c)    The  effect  of  food-protein  on  the  production 
of  milk. 

As  milk  contains  a  lot  of  protein  substances, 
milch  cattle  must  always  have  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  this  material  in  the  ration  if  the  tissues  of  the  body 
are  not  to  be  used  for  the  formation  of  milk.  All  the 
investigations  in  which  foods  rich  in  protein  have 
been  compared  with  those  poor  in  this  material 
have  shown  the  powerful  influence  which  the  former 
exercise  upon  the  yield  of  milk.  If  the  allowance 
of  protein  in  a  ration  is  diminished,  then,  although 
there  may  be  a  sufficiency  of  non-nitrogenous 
material,  the  quantity  of  milk  decreases  rapidly,  as, 
for  instance,  in  one  observed  case  from  97  kg.  to 
7-65  kg.,  or  in  another  from  13-4  kg.  to  as  little  as 
8 -45  kg.,  the  condition  of  the  cows  falling  off  at  the 
same  time.     As  a  rule,  no  influence  of  the  food- 


326    SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

protein  upon  the  percentage  amounts  of  protein 
or  fat  in  the  milk  has  been  observed.  It  is  only 
when  the  body  is  much  reduced  in  protein  that 
the  milk  becomes  poorer  in  fat  and  more  watery. 
The  amount  of  digestible  protein  which  is  essential 
for  the  production  of  a  given  quantity  of  milk 
depends  to  a  certain  degree  upon  the  non-nitrogen- 
ous nutrients  in  the  food.  Just  as  fat  and  the 
carbohydrates  can  diminish  protein  metabolism  in 
the  formation  of  flesh  (p.  72),  so  can  they  also  act 
in  the  production  of  milk.  It  is  possible,  in  fact, 
by  a  plentiful  use  of  carbohydrates,  to  so  reduce  the 
metabolism  of  the  food-protein  in  cows  that  no 
more  is  decomposed  than  the  animals  require 
for  the  maintenance  of  life.  This  saving  can  go 
so  far  that  all  the  digestible  protein  substance 
above  that  needed  for  maintenance  (0-5  lb.  per 
1000  lbs.  live  weight,  p.  245)  can  be  utilised  for  the 
formation  of  milk  without  any  call  being  made  upon 
the  protein  of  the  body.  Such  a  result  is  possible, 
not  only  when  moderate  yields  of  milk  are  got,  but 
when  the  amount  is  as  high  as  32  lbs.  per  head  per 
day. 

This  fact,  which  has  been  proved  from  many  sides, 
does  not  justify  the  protein  content  of  the  milk 
being  taken  as  a  measure  of  the  protein  to  be  given 
in  the  food.  As  far  as  is  known,  it  does  not  conduce 
to  a  vigorous  activity  of  the  mammary  gland  to 
supply  it  with  only  as  much  protein  matter  as  is 


THE    FEEDING   OF   MILCH    CATTLE    327 

secreted  in  the  milk;  a  certain  excess  is  necessary 
in  order  to  counteract  the  weakening  which  the 
gland  experiences  as  the  period  of  lactation  ad- 
vances. If  the  supply  of  protein  in  the  food  were 
limited  to  that  which  appears  in  the  milk  the 
natural  decrease  in  the  milk  yield  would  most 
certainly  be  more  rapid  than  if  a  food  richer  in 
protein  were  fed.  It  is  advisable,  then,  to  reckon 
for  each  10  lbs.  of  milk  -55—65  lb.  digestible  protein 
in  addition  to  that  which  the  maintenance  of  the 
animal  demands. 


(d)   The  effect  of  non-protein  nitrogenous 
substances. 

Many  substances  of  this  nature,  such  as  aspara- 
gine  and  ammonia,  can,  as  investigations  have 
shown  (p.  66),  raise  the  increase  of  flesh  in  rumi- 
nants. This  is  very  probably  due  to  the  influence 
of  bacteria  in  the  partly  digested  food  which  con- 
vert the  non-protein  substances  into  proteins,  and 
these  are  digested  in  another  part  of  the  intestine. 
In  the  same  way  these  substances  can  naturally  be 
utilised  for  the  production  of  milk.  Experiments 
on  this  question  were  first  made  with  asparagine, 
and  afterwards  also  with  the  nitrogenous  sub- 
stances extracted  from  young  grass.  The  results 
showed  that  no  definite  effect  upon  the  formation 
of  milk  can  be  ascribed   to   the  non-protein  sub- 


328  SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

stances,  and  that  they  do  not  by  a  long  way  attain 
the  influence  of  the  protein,  even  when  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  nitrogen-free  material  is  present  in  the 
ration.  If  the  food,  as  in  some  investigations  was 
the  case,  contained  more  protein  than  the  animals 
needed,  it  would  be  immaterial  whether  the  excess 
were  replaced  by  non-protein  nitrogenous  sub- 
stances or  not,  for  the  replacement  of  proteins 
by  compounds  of  this  nature  can  only  have  an 
influence  on  the  formation  of  milk  when,  before 
the  substitution,  no  excess  of  protein  is  present. 
Investigations  on  this  point  have  only  so  far 
been  tried  with  ammonia,  which,  combined  with 
acetic  acid,  was  fed  to  the  animals.  It  was  found 
that  ammonia  could  be  as  completely  utilised  for 
milk  formation  as  are  the  proteins,  provided  a 
sufficiency  of  nitrogen-free  substances  was  present. 
It  was  noticed,  though,  that  thereby  more  carbo- 
hydrates were  used,  which  may  be  explained  by 
assuming  that  in  the  formation  of  proteins  from 
this  material  other  food  constituents  must  be 
utilised  at  the  same  time.  In  this  way  the  re- 
placement of  168  g.  of  digestible  protein  by  an 
amount  of  ammonia  which  had  the  same  quan- 
tity of  nitrogen  as  the  protein  was  possible,  and 
without,  as  it  proved,  any  change  being  made  in  the 
percentage  composition  of  the  milk. 

There  are  then  nitrogenous  substances  of  a  non- 
protein nature  which  can,  where  there  is  plenty  of 


THE    FEEDING    OF    MILCH    CATTLE    329 

carbohydrate  material,  maintain  the  milk  yield  at 
the  same  level  as  do  digestible  proteins.  Probably 
these  substances  are  converted  by  the  help  of 
bacteria  in  the  partly  digested  food  into  protein. 
Before  it  is  possible  to  satisfactorily  answer  the 
questions  which  arise  out  of  the  above-mentioned 
observation,  it  will  be  necessary  to  test  the  effect 
of  a  large  number  of  substances  rich  in  amides  in 
the  same  way  as  has  been  done  with  ammonia. 


(e)    The  effect  of  non-nitrogenous  nutrients. 

It  has  been  previously  stated  that  with  a  food 
rich  in  nitrogen-free  substances  and  poor  in  protein 
all  the  proteins  that  are  not  required  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  animal  can  be  transformed  into  milk 
proteins.  As  milk  contains  in  addition  to  the 
protein  large  quantities  of  fat  and  milk  sugar,  these 
constituents  must  be  formed  from  the  digested 
fat  and  carbohydrates.  Milk  fat,  like  body  fat, 
can  be  made  from  the  carbohydrates  of  the  food, 
as  many  experiments  with  cows  to  which  a  ration 
artificially  freed  from  fat  was  given,  have  proved. 
In  one  case,  for  example,  during  an  experimental 
period  of  fourteen  days,  the  quantity  of  digested 
fat  was  2- 18  kg.,  and  that  portion  of  fat  which  could 
arise  from  the  decomposed  protein  (p.  65)  was  at 
most  1778  kg.,  so  that  in  all  a  maximum  of  19-96  kg. 
fat  was  available  for  the  milk.     As  37-65  kg.  fat 


330  SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

were  extracted  from  the  milk,  there  must  have 
been  at  least  17-69  kg.  of  milk  fat,  and  all  the  milk 
sugar  formed  from  the  carbohydrates. 

The  nitrogen-free  extract  substances,  then,  supply 
the  mammary  gland  with  material  for  the  produc- 
tion of  milk  fat  and  milk  sugar.  These  two  com- 
ponents of  the  milk  can,  it  is  true,  probably  be 
formed  from  the  protein  of  the  food,  but  as  the 
amount  of  this  is  not  as  a  rule  excessive,  there  is 
not  likely  to  be  much  available  surplus  after  the 
proteins  of  the  milk  have  taken  what  they  require. 
Should  there  be  a  lack  of  non-nitrogenous  material 
in  the  ration  there  must,  in  the  course  of  time,  be 
a  decrease  in  the  formation  of  milk.  In  the  begin- 
ning, it  is  true,  the  body  fat  would  be  a  substitute 
for  the  lack  of  carbohydrates,  and  would  have  to 
supply  material  for  the  formation  of  milk  fat  and 
milk  sugar.  After  the  gradual  using  up  of  the  body 
fat  a  falling  off  in  the  milk  yield  is  to  be  inevitably 
expected. 

The  nitrogen-free  nutrients  have,  further,  another 
indirect  influence  upon  the  secretion  of  milk  in 
that  they  greatly  diminish  the  consumption  of 
protein  (p.  72).  This  fact  is  of  great  practical 
importance,  for  by  feeding  large  amounts  of  carbo- 
hydrates (mangels,  molasses,  beet  slices)  the  quantity 
of  concentrated  food  can  be  profitably  reduced. 

The  effect  which  is  exercised  by  the  fat  of  the 
food    upon    the    amount    and    properties    of    the 


THE    FEEDING    OF    MILCH    CATTLE    331 

milk  fat  requires  special  notice  here.  The  older 
investigations  on  this  subject  led  to  very  varying 
results ;  at  one  time  there  was  found  to  be  an  in- 
crease in  the  milk  fat  and  at  another  a  decrease, 
whilst  in  many  cases  no  effect  at  all  was  noticed. 
Ten  series  of  experiments  carried  out  on  the  same 
lines  in  different  parts  and  with  cattle  of  various 
breeds — there  being  almost  200  cows  under  observa- 
tion— have  given  a  trustworthy  reply  to  this  im- 
portant question.  The  plan  of  these  experiments 
was  to  feed  a  constant  basal  ration  in  each  series, 
and  then  add  to  this  at  one  time  a  rice  meal  rich  in 
fat,  and  at  another  time  rye  meal  and  enough  potato 
starch  to  make  the  starch  equivalent  of  each  food 
mixture  the  same.  In  one  ration  there  was  1  kg. 
digestible  fat  per  1000  kg.  live  weight,  and  in  the 
other  an  equivalent  quantity  of  digestible  carbo- 
hydrates and  very  little  fat.  The  average  results 
of  the  ten  experiments  showed  that  with  the  food 
rich  in  fat  there  were  0-31  kg. =27%  less  milk  and 
13  g.=37%  less  fat  obtained  than  with  the  food 
poor  in  fat — differences  which  are  so  small  that 
they  hardly  come  into  consideration. 

In  separate  cases  the  individual  peculiarities  of 
the  cows  were  very  striking,  as  has  been  seen  in 
an  experiment  previously  quoted  (p.  310).  There 
were  also  considerable  differences  in  the  several 
groups,  and  if  the  results  are  arranged  according 
to  the  changes  in  the  milk  yield  and  several  groups 


332  SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

put  together,  the  following  figures  are  obtained. 
The  plus  sign  denotes  an  increase  and  the  minus 
sign  a  decrease  as  compared  to  the  effect  of  the 
food  poor  in  fat. 


Quantity 
of  milk. 
Per  cent. 

Percentage 
of  fat. 

Weight 

of  fat. 

Per  cent. 

3  groups     . 

-7-2 

+  0-28 

+i-o 

3 

-2-6 

—  0-02 

-3'2 

4       u 

+o-6 

—  0-26 

-7-6 

Average  .      —27  0  —37 

Therefore  the  percentage  fat  composition  of  the 
milk  has  not  changed  under  the  influence  of  the 
ration  richer  in  fat.  Where,  however,  the  yield  of 
milk  diminished  the  most  (7-2%)  the  percentage 
amount  of  fat  in  the  milk  rose  by  almost  -3  %,  and 
conversely  where  the  quantity  of  milk  was  small 
the  percentage  of  fat  fell  by  -26%.  In  the  inter- 
mediate series  there  was  a  slight  decrease  in  quantity 
(2-6%),  but  no  change  in  the  percentage  fat  com- 
position of  the  milk  was  observed. 

The  above  investigations,  therefore,  bring  a  very 
satisfactory  explanation  of  the  anomalies  found  in 
the  older  experiments,  and  the  conclusion  may  be 
drawn  that  more  than  -J-  lb.  food  fat  per  1000  lbs. 
live  weight  brings  no  advantage,  and  it  is  sufficient 
if  the  daily  ration  of  a  cow  contain  -5—6  lb.  of  fat 
per  1000  lbs.  live  weight.     For  sheep  and  goats  the 


THE   FEEDING   OF    MILCH    CATTLE    333 

food  may  contain  more  fat  (up  to  lib.).  Without 
exception  it  has  been  shown  in  these  experiments, 
as  in  the  older  ones,  that  the  food  fat  has  a  power- 
ful influence  upon  the  properties  of  the  milk  fat. 
It  has,  indeed,  been  long  known  that  certain  fatty 
foods  render  the  butter  soft,  whilst  others  tend  to 
harden  it,  and  advantage  has  been  taken  of  this 
to  improve  the  milk  fat  by  feeding  certain  oil  cakes. 

The  more  a  certain  fat  predominates  in  the  ration, 
so  much  more  do  the  properties  of  the  butter  fat 
approach  those  of  the  food  fat.  In  the  feeding  of 
sesame,  cocoa-nut  and  almond  oils,  it  has  been 
noticed  that  the  butter  fat  which  was  obtained 
behaved  on  chemical  analysis  like  a  mixture  of 
butter  with  the  various  oils.  Similarly,  in  the 
experiments  just  recorded  with  rice  meal  the  fat 
of  the  milk  was  found  to  be  soft  and  greasy  and  to 
possess  properties  quite  different  to  those  of  the 
fat  got  from  the  rye  meal  feeding.  These  peculiari- 
ties are  only  observed  to  take  place  gradually ;  the 
complete  change  may  require  as  much  as  2-3  weeks. 
Thorough  investigations  have  shown  that  those  com- 
ponents of  the  food  fat  which  otherwise  are  not 
found  in  the  body,  e.g.  linoleic  acid  or  phytosterin, 
do  not  pass  into  the  milk.  The  only  change  in  the 
milk  fat  is  that  of  the  proportion  between  those 
liquid  and  solid  fats  which  under  normal  conditions 
take  part  in  the  formation  of  milk. 

However  much  of  any  fat  may  be  given  in  the 


334    SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

food,  it  is  not  possible  to  produce  a  butter  which 
will  in  all  respects  resemble  the  food  fat.  The 
mammary  gland  is  apparently  unable  to  work  up 
those  fats  which  are  foreign  to  the  body. 

The  carbohydrates  also  are  not  without  influence 
upon  the  composition  of  the  butter.  It  has  been 
observed  that  towards  autumn  the  butter  from 
cows  on  pasture  has  behaved  like  a  mixture  of 
margarine  and  butter  when  chemically  examined, 
and  that  feeding  with  mangel  tops  has  the  power 
to  remove  this  drawback.  Following  upon  this 
observation,  it  was  discovered  that  the  improve- 
ment must  be  ascribed  to  the  sugar  in  the  mangel 
tops,  and  that  sugar-containing  foods,  as  well  as 
sugar  itself,  have  the  power  of  increasing  the  amount 
of  compounds  of  volatile  fatty  acids  (glycerides)  in 
the  butter. 


(/)    The  so-called  specific  effects  of  the  food-stuffs. 

Alongside  the  effect  which  ordinary  foods  of  good 
quality  exercise  through  the  nutrients  which  they 
contain  there  are,  according  to  very  prevalent 
views,  other  powers  which  affect  the  produc- 
tion of  flesh  or  milk  for  good  or  ill.  It  certainly 
cannot  be  denied  that  when  a  feeding-stuff  agrees 
with  an  animal  it  can  increase  the  nutritive  value,  and 
also  that  the  palatableness  not  only  influences  the 
consumption,  but  also  the  food  value,  particularly 


THE   FEEDING   OF   MILCH    CATTLE    335 

with  animals  like  milch  cows,  which  are  easily 
affected  by  nervous  impulses. 

It  has,  in  fact,  been  proved  that  under  certain 
conditions  substances  which  are  particularly  agree- 
able to  animals — as,  for  instance,  fennel,  aniseed, 
the  scent  of  aromatic  hay,  etc. — have  a  favourable 
influence  upon  the  milk  yield.  In  experiments  with 
goats  and  milch  sheep  the  effects  of  two  rations  with 
exactly  the  same  nutritive  value  have  been  compared. 
In  one  case  the  ration  was  partly  composed  of  very 
good  meadow  hay,  whilst  the  other  was  an  artificial 
mixture  of  straw,  starch,  gluten,  oil,  ash  of  hay,  etc., 
and  was  a  very  tasteless  food.  The  result  of  the 
experiments  showed  that  in  no  case  was  it  possible 
to  obtain  the  same  yield  of  milk  from  the  second 
ration  as  was  got  from  the  ration  containing  the 
meadow  hay. 

When  a  small  part  of  the  mixed  food  was  replaced 
by  fennel,  aniseed,  or  malt  coombs,  or  when  an 
extract  from  hay,  or  the  volatile  essential  oils  dis- 
tilled from  hay,  were  added  to  the  unpalatable  ration 
a  distinct  rise  in  milk  production  was  achieved ; 
sometimes  even  the  milk  yield  was  equal  to  that  from 
normal  food.  Amongst  those  substances  tried  the 
only  one  which  failed  to  show  any  advantage  was 
fenugreek.  When,  however,  the  above-mentioned 
substances  were  added  to  the  ration  containing 
meadow  hay  no  benefit  at  all  was  noticed,  for  the 
aromatic  components  of  the  hay  were  sufficient. 


336    SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF    ANIMALS 

Under  ordinary  conditions,  where  the  food-stuffs 
are  not  tasteless,  insipid,  and  without  smell,  then 
the  addition  of  4  or  5  lbs.  of  good  meadow  hay 
makes  the  effect  of  the  above-mentioned  spices  nil. 

A  very  large  number  of  experiments  with  these 
different  substances,  either  alone  or  mixed,  have 
proved  this  as  well  as  with  other  materials,  such  as 
caraway,  coriander,  fenugreek,  sweet  calamus,  and 
gentian  roots,  goat's  rue,  jaborandi  leaves,  and 
other  drugs,  flowers  of  sulphur,  antimony  sulphide, 
preparations  of  iron,  phosphate  of  lime,  sodium 
bicarbonate,  common  salt.  Many  of  the  above  alter 
the  properties  of  the  milk,  imparting  to  it  a  foreign 
smell  or  taste,  or  make  it  unsuitable  for  cheese- 
making,  whilst  some  few,  if  given  without  care, 
cause  digestive  disturbances.  Fennel  is  of  assist- 
ance in  case  of  obstinate  retention  of  milk,  but 
under  normal  conditions  the  above-mentioned  sub- 
stances have  no  beneficial  influence.  A  good 
meadow  hay  is  and  remains  the  best  spice. 

Many  feeding-stuffs  are  said  to  raise  the  percentage 
of  fat  in  the  milk,  and  on  this  point  very  numerous 
experiments  have  been  made,  the  results  of  which 
have,  however,  been  most  varied.  For  example, 
with  palm-nut  meal  it  was  found  in  five  of  eleven 
cases  that  the  effect  was  beneficial,  in  one  case  it 
was  unfavourable,  and  in  the  remaining  five  neither 
favourable  nor  unfavourable.  In  seven  experi- 
ments with  cocoa-nut  cake  four  were  favourable, 


THE    FEEDING    OF    MILCH    CATTLE    337 

one  unfavourable,  and  the  other  two  had  no  effect 
one  way  or  the  other.  With  cotton-seed  meal  one 
trial  was  favourable,  another  unfavourable,  and 
the  third  showed  no  effect  upon  the  milk  yield  or 
the  percentage  of  fat.  These  contradictions  can 
hardly  be  explained  in  any  other  way  but  by  the 
extraordinarily  different  behaviour  of  the  animals 
towards  the  various  foods  (p.  310).  Without  ex- 
ception, in  these  investigations,  too  small  a  number 
of  cows  were  used,  and  so  the  influence  of  individu- 
ality was  not  equalised.  In  contrast  to  the  above- 
mentioned  observations,  there  have  been  other  ex- 
periments in  which  not  less  than  200  cows  have 
been  used  in  each  case,  and  still  no  specific  action 
of  the  food-stuffs  that  have  so  far  been  tested  has 
been  detected.  Here  a  mixture,  half  oats  and  half 
barley,  both  coarsely  ground,  was  fed,  and  the  effect 
of  this  was  compared  with  (1)  ground  maize,  (2)  a 
mixture  of  oil  cakes  (J  rape,  J  palm-nut,  J-  sun- 
flower-seed), (3)  wheat  bran,  (4)  crushed  wheat, 
(5)  a  mixture  of  wheat  bran  and  palm-nut  cake  with 
molasses,  (6)  mangels.  In  none  of  these  extensive 
series  of  experiments  was  the  replacement  of  the 
ground  cereals  by  the  other  foods  attended  by  a 
change  in  the  percentage  amount  of  fat  in  the  milk. 
The  yield  of  milk  certainly  did  rise  when  the  mix- 
ture of  oil  cakes  took  the  place  of  an  equal  weight 
of  the  ground  cereals,  but  this  must  be  ascribed  to 
the  greater  quantity  of  protein  in  the  former  (p.  325). 


338    SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

Whilst  it  may  be  conceded  that  there  are  perhaps 
certain  feeding-stuffs  which  favourably  influence  the 
production  of  milk  fat,  no  conclusive  proof  has  as 
yet  been  furnished  in  a  single  case. 


(g)    The  effect  of  foodstuffs  injurious  to  health. 

All  injurious  foods,  even  when  the  quantity 
which  is  consumed  does  not  lead  to  any  apparent 
injury  to  health,  are  liable  to  reduce  the  quantity 
and  fat  contents  of  the  milk.  An  earth-nut  meal, 
for  example,  which  contained  small  quantities  of 
castor-oil  meal,  reduced  the  milk  yield  in  a  herd  of 
cows  by  i%,  although  only  in  a  few  cases  was  the 
health  appreciably  affected.  A  similar  effect  has 
been  observed  in  the  case  of  poppy-seed  cake, 
which  probably  contained  traces  of  opium.  The 
unfavourable  influence  which  many  damaged  food- 
stuffs have  upon  the  milk  yield  may  probably  be 
due  to  the  presence  of  substances  injurious  to  health 
(p.  118).  The  prejudicial  effects  of  injurious  foods 
are  much  more  pronounced  with  milking  stock  than 
with  fattening  or  working  cattle. 


(6)  Food  for  Mitch  Cattle. 

From  the  statements  already  made  and  from 
the  results  obtained  from  well-conducted  associa- 
tions dealing  with  the  testing  of  milk,  it  may  be  said 


THE    FEEDING    OF    MILCH    CATTLE    339 

that  for  the  production  of  10  kg.  (22  lbs.)  of  milk 
0-55-0-65  kg.  (ij-ii  lbs.)  protein  and  a  starch 
equivalent  of  2-0-2-7  kg.  (4-^-6  lbs.)  are  necessary 
in  addition  to  the  nutrients  required  for  the  main- 
tenance of  life  (p.  246).  In  the  daily  ration  0-5-0-6 
lb.  of  digestible  fat  may  be  given  per  1000  lbs.  live 
weight  without  any  unfavourable  effect  (p.  332). 

The  amount  of  food  must  naturally  be  regulated 
according  to  the  yield  of  milk,  for  a  cow  giving 
40  lbs.  of  milk  a  day  will,  of  course,  require  more 
nutrient  than  one  giving  16  lbs.  If  all  the  cows  are 
fed  alike,  as  is  so  often  done,  and  the  quantity  of 
food  arranged  for  the  average  yield  of  the  herd, 
there  will  be  some  cows  getting  too  little  and  others 
too  much  food.  Both  cases  act  against  the  pro- 
duction of  milk,  for  if  the  animal  is  starved  the 
mammary  gland  is  weakened  and  the  natural 
decrease  of  milk  is  accelerated,  which  is  injurious 
to  the  milking  capacity  of  the  calves  which  follow  ; 
whilst  if  the  mammary  gland  becomes  fat  its  pro- 
ductive power  is  also  diminished.  Therefore  it 
cannot  be  too  strongly  insisted  that  the  feeding 
should  be  individual — that  is,  the  cows  in  a  herd 
should  be  divided  into,  say,  five  groups,  according 
to  the  yield  of  milk,  and  fo&d  proportionate  to 
the  amount  of  milk  should  be  given.  It  is  not  at 
all  necessary  to  place  the  animals  of  the  same  group 
near  to  one  another  ;  all  the  cows  may  be  given 
the  same  basal  ration,  but  the  mixture  of  concen- 


340    SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

trated  foods  should  be  measured  according  to  the 
production  of  each  group.*  Regular  test  milkings 
to  ascertain  the  yield  of  each  cow  must,  of  course, 
be  undertaken.  The  quantity  of  food  should  be 
so  measured  that  the  cows  neither  get  thin  nor  fat, 
but  remain  in  good  condition.  In  Table  III  in  the 
Appendix  are  given  food  standards  which  are  most 
useful  in  this  respect.  The  yield  of  milk  from  a 
certain  point  onward  does  not  keep  pace  with  the 
extra  supply  of  nutrients,  but  for  the  production  of 
the  last  quart  of  milk  a  greater  amount  of  food  is 
necessary  than  below  this  point.  For  this  reason 
two  numbers  are  given  in  the  feeding  standards, 
the  smaller  one  applicable  when  the  profit  on  the 
milk  is  low,  and  the  larger  one  when  it  is  high. 

Nothing  stands  in  the  way  of  an  increase  of 
protein  above  the  standards ;  only  seldom,  though, 
will  it  be  necessary  to  use  more  of  this,  the  dearest 
of  nutrients,  than  is  prescribed  in  the  standards. 

In  those  cases  where  the  cows  are  not  to  be  used 
further  for  breeding,  but  to  be  milked  dry  and 
fattened,  the  food  must  be  regulated  according  to 
the  milk  when  the  yield  has  reached  7-10  pints; 
only  in  the  last  3  or  4  months  need  the  food  be 
made  up  to  a  fattening  ration  by  the  addition  of 

*  R.  Geissler,  who  first  described  this  method,  advises,  for  example, 
that  cows  giving  8-9  pints  of  milk  should  have  1  measure  of  concen- 
trated food,  whilst  those  giving  11-14  pints  would  get  2  measures. 
The  number  of  measures  can  be  marked  on  the  boards  which  stand 
near  each  cow,  giving  particulars  of  breed,  age,  etc. 


THE    FEEDING    OF    MILCH    CATTLE    341 

carbohydrate  material.  If  the  fattening  were  begun 
earlier,  then  not  only  would  the  milk  yield 
suffer,  but  the  quantity  of  food  used  would  also 
be  more. 

Pregnant  cows  require  a  slight  addition  of  diges- 
tible protein  matter  for  the  development  of  the 
calf,  and  the  quantity  may  be  approximately  cal- 
culated from  the  weight  of  the  newly  born  calf. 
A  calf  weighing  40  kg.  contains  about  8  kg.  protein, 
and  for  the  formation  of  this  the  mother  must 
be  given  about  n  kg.  protein  in  the  food  during 
the  last  5  or  6  months  of  pregnancy — that  is,  60  g. 
per  day,  although  with  the  bigger  breeds  100  g. 
are  necessary  in  any  case,  though  the  daily  addition 
to  the  ration  is  very  small.  The  nitrogen-free 
nutrients  do  not  require  to  be  increased,  for  calves  at 
birth  contain  less  than  1  %  fat.  With  cows  heavy 
in  calf  a  reduction  of  the  coarse  fodder  during  the 
last  2  or  3  months  is  advisable,  because  the 
weight  of  such  food  when  partially  digested  presses 
on  the  internal  organs,  and  can  in  some  cases  cause 
a  miscarriage.  Straw  should  only  be  given  in  very 
small  amounts  during  this  time,  and  the  best  coarse 
fodder  is  hay  (10  lbs.  per  1000  lbs.  body  weight). 
Foods  with  a  heating  or  constipating  effect  should 
also  be  avoided.  When  a  cow  is  dry  a  ration  which 
contains  J  lb.  of  digestible  protein  and  a  starch 
equivalent  of  6  lbs.  per  1000  lbs.  live  weight  is 
sufficient. 


342    SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS 

If  in  drawing  up  feeding  standards  for  milch 
cattle  the  "  value  "  or  "  quanti valence  "  (p.  90)  of 
the  food-stuffs  is  taken  into  account,  the  following 
considerations  must  be  noted.  First  of  all  it  is 
clear  that  the  energy  required  for  the  work  of 
mastication  and  digestion,  and  also  losses  due  to 
fermentation  and  putrefaction,  must  be  the  same 
in  male  and  female  animals  of  the  same  species. 
Many  observations  made  by  those  whose  work  is 
the  control  of  milk  supplies,  and  also  experiments 
carried  out  on  food-stuffs  of  different  "  values," 
have  shown  that  calculations  based  on  the  starch 
equivalents  are  also  correct  for  milking  stock.  In 
an  experiment  with  24  cows,  for  example,  there 
was  the  same  amount  of  digestible  nutrients  always 
given,  but  in  the  first  and  last  periods  of  the  experi- 
ment one  part  of  the  nutrients  was  replaced  by 
mangels,  in  the  second  period  by  dried  beet  slices, 
and  in  the  third  by  beet  slices  made  into  silage. 
The  starch  equivalent  of  the  mangels  was  2-00  kg., 
of  the  dried  beet  slices  2-35  kg.,  and  of  the  silage 
2-65  kg.,  and  it  was  found  that  the  milk  yields 
stood  in  the  same  relation,  namely,  the  dry  slices 
gave  per  day  per  head  0-95  kg.  more  milk  than  the 
mangels,  and  the  silage  slices  172  kg.  more,  the 
fat  contents  of  the  milk  remaining  unchanged. 

In  another  experiment,  a  leguminous  straw  which 
was  rich  in  crude  fibre  was  compared  with  clover 
hay,  and  there  was  also  here  an  increase  of  -51  kg. 


THE    FEEDING    OF    MILCH    CATTLE    343 

milk  in  the  case  of  the  fodder  with  the  higher  starch 
equivalent — the  clover  hay — although  both  rations 
contained  the  same  amount  of  nutrients. 

Other  investigations  with  milch  sheep  and  goats 
confirm  the  statement  that  calculations  with  starch 
equivalents  are  sound  and  correct. 

As  cow's  milk  contains  on  an  average  7-4  g. 
mineral  substances,  amongst  which  are  i-8  g.  lime 
and  1 -5  g.  phosphoric  acid,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
food  should  supply  these  amounts  if  the  body  is  not 
to  be  depleted  of  them.  Further,  as  only  -J-  to  \  of 
the  lime  and  phosphoric  acid  in  the  ration  can  be 
utilised  (p.  287),  there  would  be  in  the  case  of  20  kg. 
milk  per  1000  kg.  live  weight  no  less  than  70-110  g. 
lime,  and  60-90  g.  of  phosphoric  acid  required 
in  the  food.  If  to  these  numbers  there  be  added 
the  maintenance  requirements  (p.  246)  of  100  g. 
lime  and  50  g.  phosphoric  acid,  the  total  require 
ments  for  the  above  quantity  of  milk  will  be  200  g. 
lime  and  140  g.  phosphoric  acids,  or  3-J-  oz.  and  2-J-  oz. 
for  20  lbs.  of  milk  per  1000  lbs.  live  weight.  Higher 
yields  of  milk  require  proportionately  larger  quan- 
tities of  mineral  matter. 

Generally  the  requirements  of  the  body  and  the 
milk  are  amply  met  by  the  supply  of  mineral  sub- 
stances in  the  food,  particularly  when  good  meadow 
hay,  clovers,  or  good  green  fodder  are  given.  With 
those  food-stuffs  poor  in  lime  and  phosphoric  acid 
(p.  97)  the  addition  of  phosphate  of  lime  must  be 


344    SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF    ANIMALS 

resorted  to,  or  if  there  is  only  deficiency  of  lime 
precipitated  chalk  will  do. 

If  there  is  a  continued  lack  of  lime  and  phosphoric 
acid,  diseases  of  the  bones  (p.  96)  arise,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  quantity  of  these  substances  in  the 
milk  diminishes.  In  the  case  of  a  goat  which  was 
kept  for  42  days  on  a  ration  very  poor  in  phosphoric 
acid,  the  ash  of  the  dry  matter  sank  from  9-96  to 
9*57%,  the  lime  from  0-215  to  0-197%,  the  phosphoric 
acid  from  0-306  to  0-223%.  In  general  the  mineral 
contents  of  the  milk  are  extraordinarily  invariable 
with  ordinary  food,  and  attempts  to  increase  the 
amount  of  phosphoric  acid,  lime,  magnesia,  potash, 
soda  or  chlorine  in  the  milk  by  feeding  these  sub- 
stances in  a  suitable  form  were  quite  unsuccessful. 

During  the  warmer  portions  of  the  year  the  cows 
are  on  the  pasture,  and  this  has,  according  to 
very  general  opinion,  a  favourable  influence  upon 
the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  milk.  The  moderate 
amount  of  exercise  in  the  fresh  air  which  is  obtained 
on  the  pastures  only  decreases  the  yield  of  milk,  as 
has  been  shown  (p.  315),  to  a  very  slight  extent, 
sometimes  not  at  all,  and  leads  to  the  secretion  of 
a  milk  richer  in  dry  matter  and  fat.  As  the  animals 
have  the  opportunity  of  consuming  a  relatively 
large  quantity  of  grass,  which  on  a  good  pasture 
may  equal  many  cereals  in  nutritive  value,  the 
yield  of  milk  may  not  only  not  be  diminished,  but 
more   and  richer  milk  obtained  than  when  stall 


THE    FEEDING    OF    MILCH    CATTLE    345 

feeding  was  being  followed.  The  good  result  of 
being  at  grass  is  not  in  consequence  of  a  better 
utilisation  of  the  food,  but  due  to  more  and  richer 
nourishment.  Unfortunately,  under  the  usual  con- 
ditions of  pasturing  there  is  a  waste  of  food  material, 
in  that  much  more  protein  substance  is  consumed 
than  is  necessary.  Even  when  the  green  fodder  is 
fed  in  the  stall  there  is  often  more  used  than  is 
needed — as,  for  instance,  when  stock  are  given  as 
much  young  clover  as  they  can  eat.  When,  there- 
fore, cows  are  on  good  pastures,  or  when  they  are 
getting  young  clover,  they  should  also  be  given 
some  straw;  on  the  contrary,  when  the  grass  is 
poor  some  concentrated  food  is  necessary.  The 
quantity  of  straw  which  is  to  be  given  with  the 
clover  will  vary  according  to  the  age  of  the  latter, 
for  the  older  the  clover  plant  becomes  the  less  straw 
will  be  required,  until  at  the  time  of  flowering  no 
such  addition  is  required,  owing  to  the  changes  in 
the  nutrients  of  the  plant  (p.  151).  Similarly  with 
the  leaves  of  roots  such  as  mangels,  sugar  beet,  or 
carrots,  the  vegetable  portion  of  which  possesses  a 
fairly  narrow  albuminoid  ratio,  there  is  generally 
some  dry  food  given  to  prevent  scouring,  which 
otherwise  easily  takes  place  owing  to  the  salts  of 
organic  acids  in  the  leaves.  Liberal  feeding  with 
the  leaves  of  the  sugar  beet,  which  is  often  done 
during  and  after  the  harvesting  of  the  beets,  has 
the  same  effect   as  with  good  pasture   or  clover 


346    SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

feeding,  and  gives  a  milk  richer  in  dry  matter  and 
fat  because  of  the  quantity  of  protein  in  the  food. 
On  account  of  the  beneficial  effect  of  green  fodder, 
and  also  from  economic  reasons,  it  is  usual  to  take 
care  that  green  feeding  is  not  interrupted  during 
the  summer,  and  that  it  is  carried  on  as  late  as 
possible  into  the  autumn.  Green  maize,  sorghum, 
spurry,  different  grass  mixtures,  white  mustard, 
buckwheat,  and  in  the  spring  grass,  cereals,  rape, 
etc.  play  an  important  part  along  with  clover  in 
summer  feeding  in  the  stall. 

When  winter  feeding  begins  the  place  of  the 
green  fodder  is  taken  by  mangels,  beets,  beet  slices 
silage,  sometimes,  also  by  small  quantities  of  pota- 
toes, which,  along  with  sound  hay  and  straw,  ground 
corn,  and  by-products  such  as  bran  and  oil  cakes, 
go  to  make  up  suitable  rations.  When  a  milk  rich 
in  fat  is  wanted,  the  use  of  palm-nut  cake,  cocoa-nut 
cake,  and  the  meals  made  from  these  is  recommended, 
for  by  their  use  an  increase  of  J-%  milk  fat  has  been 
observed. 

As  in  the  production  of  milk  not  only  the  quantity 
but  also  the  quality  of  the  article  has  to  be  con- 
sidered, some  attention  must  be  paid  when  choosing 
the  food-stuffs  to  see  that  nothing  is  used  which 
will  harmfully  affect  the  taste  and  properties  of 
the  milk  and  butter.  It  is  well  known  that  all 
musty  and  mouldy  foods  spoil  the  taste  of  the 
milk,   and  more  particularly  that  of  the  butter, 


THE   FEEDING   OF    MILCH    CATTLE    347 

and  that  this  bad  effect  can  continue  for  some 
time  after  the  damaged  food  has  been  stopped. 
The  same  is  the  case  when  spoiled  silage  or  green 
fodder  which  has  lain  too  long  in  thick  rows  or 
heaps  is  fed,  and  also  with  wet,  decomposed  foods 
such  as  brewers'  grains,  distillery  waste,  beet  slices, 
etc.  Lack  of  care  in  keeping  the  mangers  or  other 
feeding  vessels  clean  is  also  a  cause.  In  all  these 
cases  bacteria  undoubtedly  play  a  part ;  either  they 
cause  some  decomposition  in  the  food  with  the 
formation  of  substances  which,  after  passing  into 
the  body,  affect  the  taste  of  the  milk  or  butter,  or, 
as  is  more  probable,  the  bacteria  themselves  get 
into  the  milk  and  there  impart  to  it  the  unpleasant 
flavour.  The  taste  of  milk  and  butter  is  also  affected 
disadvantageously  if  too  much  poor  straw  is  fed, 
or  if  the  coarse  fodder  contains  any  of  the  varieties 
of  garlic.  Large  amounts  of  roots  of  all  kinds, 
fresh  or  sour  beet  slices,  potatoes,  distillery  waste, 
bran  that  contains  corn-cockle,  rape  cake  in  quan- 
tities more  than  2  lbs.  per  head  per  day,  have  all  an 
unfavourable  effect  upon  the  milk.  The  residues 
from  the  manufacture  of  linseed  oil  if  used  too 
freely  cause  the  milk  and  butter  to  taste  of  the  oil, 
and  if  the  drinking  water  is  bad  it  can  also  destroy 
the  flavour  of  the  butter. 

Foods  which  improve  the  taste  of  milk  are  good 
meadow  grass,  carrots,  oats,  and  rice  meal.  In 
practice  it  is  found  that  some  food-stuffs  make  the 


348    SCIENTIFIC    FEEDING   OF   ANIMALS 

butter  hard  and  tallowy,  and  such  are  pasture 
grass  in  autumn,  grasses  from  sour  soils,  either  green 
or  in  hay,  over-ripe  green  fodder,  hay  that  has  been 
harvested  too  late,  straw  of  various  kinds,  mangels, 
kohl-rabi,  leaves  of  sugar  beets  and  mangels,  beet 
slices,  potatoes,  ground  peas  and  vetches,  palm- 
nut  and  cocoa-nut  meals,  linseed  and  cotton-seed 
cakes. 

Butter  is  often  too  soft  when  the  following  have 
been  fed  :  crushed  oats  and  maize,  wheat  bran, 
rice  meal,  rape,  sesame  and  sunflower-seed  cakes. 

The  effect  of  these  feeding-stuffs  depends  naturally 
upon  the  quantities  which  are  used  and  is  not  always 
apparent,  particularly  when  the  influence  of  the 
other  foods  in  the  ration  acts  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion. In  any  case,  a  butter  which  is  too  hard  may 
be  improved  by  feeding  with  some  rape  cake,  rice 
meal,  or  ground  maize,  whilst  one  that  is  too  soft 
may  be  hardened  by  means  of  palm-nut  or  cocoa- 
nut  cakes. 

When  a  large  quantity  of  very  watery  food 
has  been  used  for  some  time  a  poor,  thin  milk  may 
be  obtained.  Thus  it  was  noticed  in  the  case  of  a 
ration  which,  as  regards  the  nutritive  value,  left 
nothing  to  be  desired,  but  which  was  composed  of 
50  litres  (n  gals.)  potato  slump,  21  kg.  (46  lbs.) 
wet  brewers'  grains,  and  40  kg.  (88  lbs.)  mangels, 
that  the  milk  of  the  whole  herd  only  averaged  2-10 
and  2-45%  fat,  whereas  the  animals  had  previously 


THE    FEEDING    OF    MILCH    CATTLE    349 

given  milk  of  normal  composition.  As  has  been 
shown  by  numerous  investigations,  the  percentage 
amount  of  water  remains  very  constant  in  milk  in 
spite  of  great  differences  in  the  quantity  given  in 
the  food.  Only  under  special  circumstances,  details 
of  which  are  not  understood,  is  a  very  watery  milk 
secreted,  but  it  is  probably  due  to  the  weakening 
of  the  organ  by  continued  use  of  foods  containing 
a  large  percentage  of  water  (p.  101). 


APPENDIX 


APPENDIX 

TABLES   FOR   THE   CALCULATION   OF 
RATIONS 

Method  of  using  the  Tables 

TN  making  up  rations  care  must  first  of  all  be 
J-  taken  that  the  foods  which  are  to  compose  the 
ration  are  such  as  are  suitable  for  the  animals  for 
which  they  are  intended,  and  that  they  have 
already  been  successfully  used  in  practice.  Each 
food  which  it  is  proposed  to  use  in  the  ration  should 
then  have  its  nutritive  value  ascertained,  for  which 
purpose  the  contents  of  (a)  crude  nutrients,  (b) 
digestible  nutrients,  (c)  starch  equivalent  should 
be  determined.  If  the  food-stuff  after  analysis 
possesses  a  different  composition  to  that  given  in 
Table  I,  then,  with  the  help  of  Table  II,  the  amount 
of  digestible  nutrients  must  be  calculated.  For  this 
purpose  the  digestibility  coefficients  of  materials 
of  a  similar  kind  are  used.  It  would  be  quite 
wrong  if  the  coefficients  for  grass  were  applied  to 
clovers,  even  though  the  analyses  of  both  were 
similar. 

2A  353 


354    SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

In  Table  II  no  digestibility  coefficients  are  given 
for  pure  protein,  but  nevertheless  numbers  can 
be  calculated  ;  it  is  only  necessary  to  subtract  the 
amount  of  amides  from  the  digestible  crude  protein. 
To  find  what  quantity  of  amides  are  present  the 
digestible  protein  shown  in  column  12  of  Table  I 
is  subtracted  from  the  digestible  crude  protein  given 
in  the  same  Table  (column  7).  The  digestible  nutri- 
ents in  the  food-stuff  are  then  the  basis  for  the 
calculation  of  the  starch  equivalent.     It  is  : — 

1  part  digestible  protein  .         .     =0*94  parts  starch  equivalent 

1  part  digestible  fat  in  the  coarse 
fodders,  chaff,  roots,  and 
their  by-products        .         .     =1*91      „  „  „ 

In  grains  and  their  by-products, 

exclusive  of  oily  seeds       .     =  2"i2     „  „  „ 

In  oil  seeds  and  oil  cakes  .     =2*41     „  „  „ 

1  part  digestible  nitrogen-free 
extract  substances  and 
crude  fibre  together  .     =  roo     „  „  „ 

If  the  nutrients  of  the  particular  food-stuff  can 
be  regarded  as  of  "  full  value,"  which  can  be  seen 
by  reference  to  the  data  in  Table  I  regarding 
similar  or  allied  foods,  then  all  that  is  necessary  is 
to  add  together  the  equivalents,  as  shown  above,  of 
the  three  groups  of  nutrients,  and  obtain  the  total 
starch  equivalent.  If  the  value  of  the  food  is 
shown  by  Table  I  to  be  less  than  100,  a  deduction 
depending  upon  the  different  feeding-stuffs  has  to 


APPENDIX  355 

be  made.  In  the  case  of  roots  and  tubers,  grains 
and  industrial  by-products,  use  is  made  of  the 
number  expressing  the  "  value."  If,  for  example, 
the  starch  equivalent  of  rape  cake  is  wanted,  and 
the  analysis  is  36-5  %  crude  protein,  8  %  fat, 
25-8  %  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  11-5  %  crude 
fibre,  and  the  digestibility  coefficients  for  the 
digestible  substances  being,  according  to  Table  II, 
29-6  %  crude  protein,  6-3  %  fat,  19-6  %  nitrogen- 
free  extract,  and  0-9  %  crude  fibre.  As,  accord- 
ing to  Table  I,  there  are  4-4  parts  of  amides  in  33-1 
parts  crude  protein,  there  will  be  4-8  %  amides  in  the 
36*5  %  crude  protein  in  the  rape  cake.  The  4-8  % 
amides  are  to  be  regarded  as  perfectly  digestible, 
and  if  they  are  deducted  from  the  29-6  %  digestible 
crude  protein  which  the  cake  contains,  there  is 
left  24-8  %  digestible  proteins. 

24*8  %  digestible  proteins    x   0*94  =  23-3  %  starch  equivalent 

6-3  „          „         fat            x    2-41  =  15-2  „       „  „ 
2C5  „          „         nitrogen-free  ex- 
tract +  crude  fibre  x   roo  =  20*5  „      „  „ 

Total    .     .  59/0  %  starch  equivalent 

If  the  nutrients  in  the  rape  cake  were  of  full 
value,  the  sum  obtained  above  would  represent 
the  starch  equivalent ;  but  the  value  of  rape  cake, 
according  to  Table  I,  is  only  95  %,  so  5  %  has  to 
be  deducted,  which  leaves  the  starch  equivalent 
of  rape  cake  at  56-0  %.     When  dealing  with  the 


356     SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

coarse  fodders  (hay  and  straw),  it  is  advisable  not 
to  make  use  of  the  value  number,  but  to  deduct 
0-58  from  the  starch  equivalent,  as  calculated  above 
for  each  per  cent  of  crude  fibre  (not  the  digestible, 
be  it  noted)  in  the  food. 

Chaff  is  treated  in  the  same  way,  a  deduction 
of  0-29  being  made  for  each  1  %  crude  fibre.  With 
green  fodders  the  starch  equivalent  depends  also 
upon  the  amount  of  crude  fibre  ;  where  the  amount 
in  the  green  fodder  is  16  %  and  more,  a  deduction 
of  0-58  starch  equivalent ;  whereas,  if  the  amount 
of  crude  fibre  is  4  %  or  less,  the  deduction  is  only  0-29 
starch  equivalent.  For  intermediate  quantities  of 
crude  fibre  a  proportionate  deduction  has  to  be 
made  :  e.g.  0-34  for  each  per  cent  crude  fibre 
in  green  fodder  where  the  total  is  6  % ;  0-38 
where  the  total  is  8  % ;  0-43  where  it  is  10  %; 
0-48  where    it   is    12  % ;     and   0-53   where   it   is 

14  %• 

Two  typical  cases  are  shown  below.  Spring 
cereal  straw  contains,  according  to  Table  I,  the 
following  digestible  nutrients  : — 

ro  %  protein  x  0*94  .        .        .         .=  0*94  %  starch  equivalent 
0-4,,  fat         xi-Qi  .  076,,      „  „ 

i8'5  „  nitrogen-free  extract!       6x  ro=39-6oM      „ 

2 vi  „  crude  fibre      .        .J0'  J*      "      "  " 

4i'30»       n  n 

Deduct  39  %  crude  fibre  x  0*58      22.6    „      „  „ 

187%   starch  equivalent 


APPENDIX  357 

For  green  cock's-foot  grass  in  flower  there  are, 
according  to  Table  I,  the  following  amounts  of 
digestible  nutrients  : — 

i  "o%  protein  xo*94  ....    =0^94%  starch  equivalent 
0-4,,  fat         xi'9i    .        .         .        .    =076,,      „  „ 

9-5  „  nitrogen-free  extract  1      -  « 

43  „  crude  fibre       .         .  /I35X  l  °  "U*  »i      » 

Deduct  7 "3%  crude  fibre  x  0*36       2*6   „     „  „ 

I2"9%  starch  equivalent 

Without  any  serious  error  the  calculations  can 
be  simplified  by  reckoning  2-2  starch  equivalent 
for  1  part  digestible  fat  in  all  food-stuffs. 

After  finding  the  amount  of  digestible  protein  in 
the  foods  which  are  to  compose  the  ration  and  the 
starch  equivalents,  Table  III  must  then  be  turned 
to  in  order  to  find  in  what  proportions  the  foods 
must  be  used.  As  some  of  the  feeding-stuffs  have 
almost  certainly  been  grown  on  the  farm,  it  must 
first  of  all  be  decided  what  quantities  of  hay,  straw, 
mangels,  etc.  can  be  spared  for  each  branch  of 
stock  per  head  per  day,  so  that  the  supply  is  enough 
for  the  time  during  which  this  particular  ration  is 
to  be  fed. 

Suppose  that  for  cows  weighing  1000  lbs.  and 
giving  20  lbs.  milk,  there  are,  after  deducting  straw 
for  litter,  30  lbs.  mangels,  8  lbs.  meadow  hay, 
10  lbs.  straw  available  ;  also  that  brewers'  grains 
are    cheap,    and    25  lbs.    may    be    given.      From 


358     SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING   OF  ANIMALS 


Table    I    it    is   seen    that   the   four  feeding-stuffs 
contain  : — 


Starch 


30  lbs.  mangels 
8  „    hay 
10 
25 


straw     . 
brewers'  grains 


Dry 

equiva- 

matter. 

Protein. 

lent. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

3-6 

0-03 

1-89 

69 

0*30 

248 

8-6 

OIO 

i-88 

5'9 

o-88 

3'i8 

25-0 


According  to  the  feeding  standards, 

Table  III,  there  should  be  given       25*0 


i"*i 


175 


9'43 


10-5 


0-44 


1  "07 


A  feeding-stuff  which  will  serve  to  make  the 
ration  up  to  the  standard  is  then  sought,  and  it  is 
calculated  what  quantity  is  necessary  for  the 
purpose.  In  this  way  a  large  number  of  suitable 
foods  or  mixtures  are  found,  as,  for  example,  those 
given  below : — 


Protein, 
lbs. 

Starch 

equivalent. 

lbs. 

w 

2  lbs.  extracted  rape  meal  . 

0-48 

ro6 

(*) 

1  lb.  linseed  cake  . 
1    „     wheat  bran     . 

■} 

0-37 

viS 

M 

1    „     barley  bran    . 
|   „     cotton-seed  meal 

} 

0'42 

1-13 

M 

1    „     dry  maize  slump 
|   „     earth-nut  meal 

} 

0*42 

ri8 

W 

1    „     field  beans     . 
1    „     rape  cake 

} 

0*42 

1-28 

The  small  differences  from  the  feeding  standards, 
which  are  seen  above,  are  absolutely  unimportant, 
for  in  no  case  can  the  nutritive  value  of  a  food-stuff 


APPENDIX  359 

be  measured  without  likelihood  of  a  small  error. 
The  calculation  may,  in  fact,  be  made  with  crude 
protein,  if  the  feeding-stuffs  composing  the  ration 
are  not  very  rich  in  amides.  Generally  the  cheapest 
amongst  the  foods  which  will  serve  to  supplement  the 
ration  is  chosen,  and  it  is  best  to  regard  the  market 
price  in  doing  this,  for  the  nutritive  values  of  foods, 
as  given  in  tables,  are  the  average  for  whole  countries 
at  some  particular  time,  and  may  not  apply  when 
the  ration  is  being  made  up.  In  no  case,  though, 
are  the  standards  in  Table  III  to  be  treated  as 
cast-iron  ;  they  are  meant  to  enable  the  feeder  to 
start  with  a  well-tried  average  ration,  and  then  he 
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387 


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389 


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A 


INDEX 


Abomasum,  19 

Absorption  of  nutrients,  26 

Acid,  lactic,  25,  39,  81,  127 

Acorns,  190 

Adulteration  of  feeding  meals, 
191 

oil  cakes,  196 

Age  of  animal,  influence  upon 
digestion,  33 

cow,  influence  upon  milk 

production,  311 

Air-dried  material,  4 

Albumin,  5 

Albuminoid  ratio,  232,  257 

Albuminoids,  3 

Albumoses,  23,  24,  59 

Alcohol  in  distillery  waste,  215 

silage,  127 

sweet  mashes,  145 

Alimentary  canal,  length  of, 
in  animals,  26 

Almond  cake,  204 

Amides,  8 

Amino  acids,  8 

Ammonium  acetate,  effect  on 
milk  production,  328 

effect  on  protein  meta- 
bolism, 66 

Animal  heat,  41 

Animals, composition  of  bodies, 

254 
Artichokes,  180 
Artificial  digestion,  30 
—  drying  of  feeding-stuffs,  135 


Ash,  15 
Asparagine,  8,  65 

—  and  fat  formation,  68 

—  influence  on  protein  meta- 
bolism, 66 

Availability,  determination  of, 

30,  379 
Available  energy  of  food,  49, 

109 

B 

Bacon,  influence  of  food  011,304 
Bacteria,   action   of,   in  diges- 
tion, 21,  24,  37,  87 

—  and  non-protein  substances, 

67 

—  in  silage,  127 
Barley,  185,  192 

—  for  horses,  281 

—  for  pigs,  186,  299 

—  meal,  193 
Bastard  clover,  164 
Beech  mast,  190 

—  nut  cake,  203 
Beef,  feeding  for,  256 

Beet  leaves, effect  of  feeding,  345 
oxalic  acid  in,  167 

—  molasses,  208 

—  silage,   129 

—  slices,  207 
Bile,  23 

Blood,      necessity      of      good 
supply,  272 

—  meal,  223 

Body  fat,  determination  of  in- 
crease, 46 


397 


398 


INDEX 


Body  fat  from  carbohydrates,  77 

from  food  fat,  74,  82 

protein,  82 

Body    heat,    loss    dependent 
upon  surface,  53 

—  temperature,  41 

—  tissue,  determination  of  in- 
crease, 44 

Bomb  calorimeter,  48 
Bones,  diseases  of,  97 
Bran,  adulteration  of,  191 

—  effects  of,  194 

on  butter,  348 

Breed  and  milk  yield,  308 
Brewers'  grains,  214 

dry,  215 

Buckwheat,  166,  187 

Butter  fat,  effect  of  food  on, 333 
Buttermilk,  220 
Butyric  acid    formed  by  bac- 
teria, 25,  127 


Cabbage,  feeding  value  of,  168 
Calf,  Liebig's  recipe   for   food 

of,  145,  291 
Calorie,  definition  of,  48 
Calves,  feeding  of,  289 

—  weaning  of,  290,  292 
Cane  sugar,  14 

in  mangels,  135,  174 

in  molasses,  208 

Carbohydrates,  14,  83 

—  influence  on  butter  fat,  334 
Carcass  meal,  222 

Carrots,  leaves  of,  167 

—  value  of,  176 
Castor-oil  seed  cake,  204 
Cattle  powders,  224 
Cellulose,  composition  of,  13 
Cereal  grains,  184 

Cereals  as  fodder  plants,  162 
Chaff,  172 

Chemical  examination  of  food- 
stuffs, 3 
Chlorine,  effects  of  deficiency, 

95 
Chopping  of  straw,  137 


Clover,  influence  of  age,  153 
Clovers,  composition  of,  163 
Coarse     fodder,     experiment 

with,  85 

for  horses,  279 

Cocoa-nut  cake,  199,  304,  348 

meal,  199,  348 

Coefficients,     digestibility,    29, 

279 
Colostrum,  219,  289 
Common  salt,  effects  of,  95,  236 
Composition  of  animal  bodies, 

254 
Condiments,    influence  on    di- 
gestibility of  food,  40 
Contamination  of  foods,  118 
Cooked  food,  value  of,  141 
Cotton-seed  cake  meal,  196 
effect  on  pigs,  197, 

304 
Cows,  and  milk  yield,  308 
Crops  for  silage,  125 
Crude  ash,  16 

—  fat,  1 2 

—  fibre,  12 

and  fat  production,  88 

increase  in  wet  weather, 

157 

value  as  food,  80 

Crushing  of  grain,  138 
Cutin  in  crude  fibre,  13 


Diffusion  slices,  207 

Digested  nutrients,  the  supply 

of  energy  from,  42 
Digestibility    coefficients,     29, 

279 

—  depression     of     by     carbo- 
hydrates, 36 

—  depression  of  by  oil,  38 

—  depression    raised    by    pro- 
tein, 38 

—  determination  of,  27 

—  influence  of  age  on,  33 

—  trials,     methods     of     con- 
ducting, 27 

Digestion,  artificial,  30 


INDEX 


399 


Digestion,  defective,  33 

—  effect  of  work  upon,  34 

—  extent  of,  3 1 

—  influence  of  quantity  of  food 
upon,  35 

—  influence  of  mixing  of  food 
upon,  36 

—  influence  of  species  of  ani- 
mal, 32 

—  of  one-sided  rations,  36 

—  processes  of,  2 1 
Digestive    power    of    different 

breeds,  32 

individuals,  33 

Distillery  grains,  215 

—  waste  or  slump,  2 1 5 
Dried  blood,  223 

—  brewers'  grains,  2 1 5 

—  slumps,  217 

Drought,  effect  on  plants,  157 
Dry  matter,  4 

Drying    of    samples    of    food- 
stuffs, 4 
Durability  of  food-stuffs,  120 
Dynamic  energy,  57 


Earth-nut  cake  and  meal,  197 
Energy  from  fat,  107 

nitrogen-free     nutrients, 

106 

isolated  nutrients,  no 

protein,  104,  106 

starch,  107,  273 

—  metabolism,  48 

—  required  for  performance  of 
work,  in 

—  sources  of,  104 

—  total,  no 

—  units  of,  48 

—  used    in     mastication    and 
digestion,   57,  87 

Ensilage  {see  Silage) 
Enzymes  in  digestive  juices,  21 

—  properties  of,  22 
Epithelial   cells    in    mammary 

gland,  307 
Ether  extract,  12 


Excretion  of  waste  products, 43 
Exercise,  benefits  of,  298,  344 


Fasting  metabolism,  51 

Fat,  amount  to  be  fed,  257,  272 

—  determination    of    increase 
in  body,  46 

—  from  cane  sugar,  80 

—  from  carbohydrates,  77 

—  from  crude  fibre,  80 

—  from  protein,  64,  82 

—  heat  value  of,  70 

—  in  food,  257 

—  influence  on  digestibility  of 
food,  38 

—  influenced  by  food,  258 

—  in  fasting,  54 
Fats  and  oils,  10 

carbohydrates,  77 

Fattening    of   grown    animals, 

254 
ruminants,   261 

—  ration,  256 
Feeding,  insufficient,  55 

—  loaves,  manufacture  of,  148 

—  of  draught  oxen,  273 

—  of  horses,  275 

—  standards,  392 
Feeding-stuffs,  full-value,  90 
Field  beans,  188,  281 

Fish  meal,  222 

Flavour  of  milk,  176,  346 

Flesh,  composition  of,  46 

—  increase  of,  44 

Flour  mills,  by-products  from, 

190 
Fodder  damaged  by  fumes,  118 

fungi,  118 

moulds,  119 

—  frozen,  119 

—  mastication  of  green,  88 

—  plants,  influence  of  variety, 

154 
of  soil  and  manuring, 

155 
Food,    extra   required   for   fat 
animals,  267 


400 


INDEX 


Food  fat,  influence  upon  body 

fat,  76 
influence  upon  secretion 

of  milk,  321 
Food  for  milch  cattle,  338 

—  preparation  for  pigs,  305 

—  nutrients,  43,  83 

Foods,  utilisation  of  complete, 

82 
Food-stuffs,  effect  of  injurious, 

338 

—  that  damage  milk,  346 

—  that  improve  milk,  347 
Frequent  milking,  effect  of,  313 
Fruit  sugar  (see  Levulose) 
Full-value  feeding-stuffs,  90 


Gaseous  products  formed  dur- 
ing digestion,  25 
Gastric  digestion,  23 
Gastric  juice,  23 
Gelatine  as  food,  61 
Glucose,  14 
Glutamine,  8 
Gluten  feed,  206 
Glycerine,  10,  11 
Grain,  composition  of,  180 

—  falsification  of  ground,   184 

—  influence  of  soil  and  manur- 
ing, 183 

—  losses  on  storage,  131 

—  sprouting  of,  182 
Grape  sugar  (see  Glucose) 
Grass,  influence  of  age,  150 
Green  food,  care  in  use  of,  158 

—  maize,  162 
Grinding  grain,  1 38 

Group  system  in  experiments 

on  cows,  319 
Growth  of  wool,  249 

H 

Hay,  150,  161 

Hay-making,  122 

Heat  generated  in  fattening, 265 

—  loss  of  body,  52 

—  values,  48 

Heating  water  for  animals,  103 


Hemp  cake,  203 
Henneberg's  number,  65 
Homco,     or    hominy    feeding 

meal,  194 
Hordenin,  214 
Horse  chestnuts,   190 

—  inferior  digestive  power,  3 1 
Horses,  feeding  of,  275 

—  maize  for,  280 

—  oats  for,  280 
Hydrochloric    acid    in    gastric 

juice,  23 
heated  with  straw,  144 


Incarnate  clover,  164 
Incrusting  material,  13,  14,  144 
Indian  corn  (see  Maize) 
Insufficient  feeding,  55 
Internal  work  of  body,  no 
Intestinal  juice,  24 
Intestine,  bacteria  in,  24 
Investigations  in  groups,  240, 

319 

periods,  240,  317 

Iron  in  food,  98 

Java  bean,  poison  in,  188 

K 

Kidney  vetch,  164 
Kohl-rabi,   176 
—  leaves,  167 


Labour,  hard,  and  nitrogen  ex- 
cretion, 105 

Lactation,  period  of,  310 

Lactic  acid,  action  on  digesti- 
bility, 39 

and  fat,  8 1 

in  digestion,  25 

in  silage,  1 27 

Lactose,  14 

Lambs,  feeding  of,  294 

—  weaning  of,  294 

Leaves  and  twigs  as  fodder,  168 

Lecithine,  8,  98 


INDEX 


401 


Leguminosae  as   fodder  crops, 

163,  165 
Leguminous  seeds,  187 
Levulose,  14 
Liebig's  recipe,  145 
Lignin  in  crude  fibre,   13 
Lime,  effect  of  deficiency,  96 

—  in  feeding-stuffs,  98 

—  phosphate  of,  223 
Linoleic  acid,  ^^2 
Linseed,  189 

—  cake,  200 

Lipase  in  gastric  juice,  23 
Loss  of  heat  from  body,  52 
Losses  during  keeping  of  man- 
gels, 134 
storage  of  grain,  131 

—  in  making  hay,  125 
Lucerne,  164 

Lupine  plants  as  fodder,  165 
poison  in,  165 

—  seeds,  189 
steeping,   143 

M 

Magnesia,  in  animal  body,  96 
Maintenance  ration,   58 

for  oxen  at  rest,  246 

for  sheep,  249 

influence  of  body  surface, 

246 
Maize,  186 

—  for  horses,  186,  280 

—  for  pigs,  187 

—  germ  cake,  206 
Malt,  182 

—  coombs,  213 
Malting  of  grains,  145 
Mammary  gland,  307 
Mangel  tops,  166 
Mangels,  food  value  of,  175 

—  losses  on  storing,   1 34 

—  properties  of,  1 74 
Manyplies,  19 

Marsh-gas  fermentation,  25 
Mashes,  sweet,  145 
Meadow  hay,  161 

—  grass,  161 


Meals,  feeding,  192 
Meat  meal,  221 
Metabolism,  definition  of,  43 
Methods    of    investigation    in 

milk  production,   317 
Milch  cows,  feeding  of,  306 
Milk,  217 

—  composition  of,  218 

—  formation  of,  306 

—  sugar,  14 

—  yields,  308 

Milking,  influence  of  frequency 

of,  311 
Millet,  182 

—  polish,  193 
Mineral  hunger,  59 

—  substances,  1 5 

metabolism  of,  94 

in  milk,  343 

Moistening  of  food,  140 
Molasses,  208 

—  feeds,  210 

adulteration  of,  211 

water  in,  212 

—  way  to  use,  211 
Muscular    energy,    sources    of, 

104,  106 
Mustard,  white,  166 


N 


Narrow  and  wide  rations,  232 

Nitrogen  equilibrium,  61 

Nitrogen-free  extract,  14 

—  nutrients  as  source  of  mus- 
cular energy,  106 

diminish  consumption  of 

protein,  330 

effect  on  metabolism,  69- 

72,  330 

effect  on  milk  produc- 
tion,  329 

injluence  upon  compo- 
sition of  butter,  334 

Nitrogenous  substances  (see 
Protein) 

Non-protein  nitrogenous  sub- 
stances, 7,  8 


402 


INDEX 


Non-protein  nitrogenous  sub- 
stances, effect  on  digesti- 
bility, 39 

effect  on  protein  me- 
tabolism, 65 

effect  on  fat  metabol- 
ism, 68 

effect  on  milk  produc- 
tion, 327 

Nutrient,  definition  of  a,  43 

—  material,  methods  of  in- 
vestigation, 44 

Nutrients,  effect  of,  in  food,  84 

Nutritive  ratio,  231,  257 


Oat  cleanings,  193 

—  feed,  193 

—  grain,  composition  of,    182, 
185 

—  husks,  117 

—  straw,  1 7 1 
Oats,  184 

—  for  cows,  2,2,7.  34^ 

—  for  horses,  185,  280 

—  stimulating  principle  in,  214 

—  substitution   of   maize   for, 
280 

Oil  cake,  adulteration  of,   196 

feeding  of,  196 

old  and  new  process,  195 

—  meal,  195 

—  mills,  residues  from,  195 
Omasum,  19 

Organic  acids  in  food-stuffs,  1 5 

—  matter,  16 
Osteo-malacia,  97 


Palmitic  acid,  10 
Palm-nut  cake,  199 

meal,  199 

Pancreatic  juice,  24 

action  of,  24 

Passage  of  food  through  animal 

body,  time  required,  27 
Pasture,  benefit  of,  298,  344 
—  grasses,  160 


Pasture,  importance  in  feeding 
pigs,  298 

—  influence  of,  on  milk,  344 
Peas,  188 

Pentosans,  composition  of,   1  * 
Pepsin  in  gastric  juice,  23 
Peptones,  23,  24,  59 
Period  of  lactation,  310 
Period  system  in  experiments 

on  cows,  317 
Permanent  pasture  grasses,  16c 
Phaseolus  lunatus,  188 
Phosphate  of  lime,  223 
Phosphoric  acid,  deficiency,  gt 

in  feeding-stuffs,  98 

Phytosterin,  333 

Pig,  power  of  digestibility,  32 

Pigs,  fattening  of,  269 

—  feeding  of  growing,  296 

—  weaning  of,  297 

Plant,  mineral  substances  in,  17 
Poison  from  cotton  seed,  197 

lupine  plants,  165 

Poppy-seed  cake,  202 
Potash  in  animal  body,  94 

molasses,  209 

Potato  slump,  216 

Potatoes,  composition  of,  177 

—  cooking  of,  179 

—  dried,  180 

—  feeding  of,  178 

—  steeping  of,   142 
Predigestion  of  foods,  146 
Productive  ration,  58 

—  value  of  nutrients,  86 
Protein  as  source  of  muscular 

energy,  104 

—  crude,  7 

—  equilibrium,  61 

—  hunger,  59 

—  influence  upon  digestibility, 
38 

metabolism,  59 

milk  production,  325 

—  part  played  in  fasting  by,  54 

—  pure,  7 
Proteins,  the,  5 
Prussic  acid,  163,  188 
Psalterium,  19 


INDEX 


403 


Ptyalin,  in  saliva,  22 
Putrefaction  of  food  in  intes- 
tine, 87 

Q 

Quantity    of    food    and    milk 
production,  323 


R 

Rape  cake,  201 

meal,  202 

Rations,  calculation  of,  354 

—  maintenance,  245,  248 

—  production,  256 

—  size  of,  233 

—  narrow  and  wide,  232 
Red  clover,  163 

Rennet  in  gastric  juice,  23 
Replacement  of  nutrients,  230 
Respiration,    increase    due    to 
excess  of  protein,  63 

—  calorimeter,  49 

—  chamber,  46 

—  collection  of  products  of,  47 
Reticulum,  19 

Rice  gluten,  206 

—  meal,   193 

—  slump,  206 

Roasting  of  food-stuffs,   142 
Roots,  composition  of,  173 

—  feeding  of,  174 

—  and    tubers,    losses    during 
storage,  132 

Rumen,   19 

Rumination,  time  required  for, 

34 
Ruminants  and  non-protein,  66 
Rye,  186 

—  for  horses,  281 


Sainfoin,  164 

Saliva,  composition  of,  23 

—  secretion  of,  1 8 

—  work  performed  by,  22 
Salt  in  animal  body,  94 

—  supply  of,  236 


Sawdust,   effect   on   digestion, 

86,  90 
Seed  grasses,  162 
Separated  milk,  220 
Serradella,  165 
Sesame  cake,  198 
Shearing  of  fattening  animals, 

266 
Sheep,  composition  of  body  of, 

254 

—  feeding-stuffs  for,  252 

—  maintenance  ration  for,  245 
Silage,  125 

—  crops,  125 

—  quantities  to  be  fed,  128 
Silo,  character  of  losses  in,  128 

—  construction,   126 

—  filling  and  covering,  126 
Size  of  body  and  loss  of  heat, 

53 
Skim  milk,  220 
Slicing  of  roots,  137 
Soaking  food,  140 
Soda,  in  animal  body,  94 
Soja  bean,  187 
Solanine,  177 
Sorghum,  163 
Sour  fodder,  125 
preparation  of,  147 

—  milk,  220 

Specific  effects  of  food  on  milk, 

334 
Spurry,  346 

Stall,  temperature  of,  265 
Standard  rations,  392 
Starch  as  food  for  bacteria,  37 

—  energy  from,  no,  273 

—  equivalent,  92 

—  formation  of  fat  from,  8 1 

—  residues  from  manufacture 
of,  204 

Steaming  of  food,  146 
Stearic  acid,  10 
Stomacb  of  ruminant,  19 
Straw,  chopping  of,  137 

—  food  value  of  cereal,  170 
of  leguminous,  171 

—  treatment    under    pressure 
with  soda  lye,  144 


404 


INDEX 


Steeping  of  potatoes  in  water, 
142 

—  of  lupines  in  water,  143 
Storage  of  cereal  grains,  130 

—  of  meals,  etc.,  132 

—  of  roots  and  tubers,  132 
Sugar  as  food  for  bacteria,  37 

—  feeding  of,  212 

—  from  protein,  64 

—  beet  as  food,  175 

leaves,  166 

slices,  207 

Suitableness  of  food,  232 
Summer  feeding  of  cows,  344 
Sunflower-seed  cake,  202 
Swedish  clover,  164 

Sweet  mashes,   145 

—  mash  for  calves,  145 


Table    for    calculation    of   ra- 
tions, 353 
Tallow,  1 1 
Temperature  during  fasting,  54 

—  in  hay-stack,   124 

—  influence    of    surroundings, 

153 

—  of  body,  41 

—  of  stall,  52,  244,  265 
Thermic  energy,  57 
Total  energy,  57 
Trypsin,  24 

Tubers,   losses   during   storage 

of,  132 
Turnips,  176 
Turnip  leaves,  167 


U 
Unit  of  energy,  48 
—  of  work,  109 
Urea,  43 


Urine,  waste  products  in,  43 
Utilisable  energy  of  nutrients, 

48,  109 
Utilisation  of  complete  foods, 

82 

—  of  digested  nutrients,  41 

—  of  energy  in  animal  body, 
109 


Vermicular  movements  of  in- 
testine, 20 

Vetches,  165 

W 

Waste    products,    composition 
of  some,  117 

in  respiration,  43 

oxidisable,  43 

Water,  1 

—  effects  of  excess  of,  10 1,  2^4 

—  in  feeding-stuffs,  4 

—  of  vegetation,    101 

—  in  body,  uses  of,  99 

—  warm  drinking,   1 02 
Watering  of  animals,  237 
Weaning  calves,  290,  292 

—  lambs,  294 

Weather,     effect     on     fodder 

plants,   157 
Weed  seeds  in  grains,  191 
Weeds,  injurious  effects  of,  120 
Wheat,  186 
Whey,  220 

Wide  and  narrow  rations,  232 
Winter  feeding  of  cows,  346 
Wool,  influence  of  food  on,  249 

—  production  of,  247 

Work,  effect  upon  digestion,  34 
■ —  influence    upon    milk    pro- 
duction, 314 
Working    animals,  feeding  of, 
271 


WILLIAM    BRENDON    AND    SON,    LTD. 
PRINTERS,    PLYMOUTH 


Wei;  leririry  Medicine 

afy  Medicine  at 

336 


